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Achieving a homogeneous dispersion of the nanofiller within the polymer matrix remains a crucial challenge, as agglomerates can compromise the material performance. This study comparatively investigates the incorporation of 0.5 wt % GO using different direct dispersion methods into epoxy resin, including manual, mechanical, magnetic stirring, ultrasonic bath, and ultrasonic tip, without organic solvents. The techniques were evaluated in terms of dispersion efficiency and their effects on the mechanical, thermal, and dynamic-mechanical properties of the resulting nanocomposites. The results demonstrated that the used GO concentration enhanced the investigated properties across all dispersion methods. All nanocomposites exhibited an increase in storage modulus compared to pure epoxy resin, with NC4 (157%), NC3 (121%), and NC2 (107%) showing the most significant improvements, indicating enhanced interfacial interactions. Impact resistance was most significantly improved by dispersion via ultrasonic tip, while microscopy analyses (TEM and SEM) effectively characterized and distinguished the dispersion quality achieved by each technique. The ultrasonic tip method led to the most effective dispersion, resulting in a 70.6% increase in impact resistance and a 157% enhancement in storage modulus, evidencing its potential for high-performance nanocomposites.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.6c05607","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T16:01:32Z","timestamp":1790092892000},"page":"59438-59453","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Direct Dispersion\nof Graphene Oxide in Epoxy: Influence\nOf Processing Route on Thermal, Dynamic-Mechanical, and Impact Properties"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1032-0078","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Fillip C.","family":"Alves","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Sa\u0303o Paulo State University (UNESP) , , Avenida Dr. Ariberto Pereira da Cunha, 333 , Pedregulho, , ,","place":["Guaratingueta\u0301, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 12516-410"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7095-1029","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Carlos E.","family":"Moraes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sa\u0303o Paulo State University (UNESP) , , Avenida Dr. Ariberto Pereira da Cunha, 333 , Pedregulho, , ,","place":["Guaratingueta\u0301, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 12516-410"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lucas C.","family":"da Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sa\u0303o Paulo State University (UNESP) , , Avenida Dr. Ariberto Pereira da Cunha, 333 , Pedregulho, , ,","place":["Guaratingueta\u0301, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 12516-410"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luis F. P.","family":"Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sa\u0303o Paulo State University (UNESP) , , Avenida Dr. Ariberto Pereira da Cunha, 333 , Pedregulho, , ,","place":["Guaratingueta\u0301, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 12516-410"]},{"name":"Institute for Technological Research of the State of Sa\u0303o Paulo (IPT) , , Estrada Dr. Altino Bondesan, 500 , Euge\u0302nio de Melo, , ,","place":["Sa\u0303o Jose\u0301 dos Campos, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 12247-016"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Heitor L. O.","family":"Junior","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sa\u0303o Paulo State University (UNESP) , , Avenida Dr. Ariberto Pereira da Cunha, 333 , Pedregulho, , ,","place":["Guaratingueta\u0301, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 12516-410"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Newton","family":"S. da Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sa\u0303o Paulo State University (UNESP) , , Avenida Engenheiro Francisco Jose\u0301 Longo, 777 , Jardim Sa\u0303o Dimas, , ,","place":["Sa\u0303o Jose\u0301 dos Campos, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 12245-000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michelle L.","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sa\u0303o Paulo State University (UNESP) , , Avenida Dr. Ariberto Pereira da Cunha, 333 , Pedregulho, , ,","place":["Guaratingueta\u0301, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 12516-410"]},{"name":"Forza Composites , Avenida Shishima Hifumi, 2911 , Urbanova, , ,","place":["Sa\u0303o Jose\u0301 dos Campos, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 12244-000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edson C.","family":"Botelho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sa\u0303o Paulo State University (UNESP) , , Avenida Dr. Ariberto Pereira da Cunha, 333 , Pedregulho, , ,","place":["Guaratingueta\u0301, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 12516-410"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2020.104976","article-title":"Influence of crystallinity on interlaminar fracture toughness and\nimpact properties of polyphenylene sulfide\/carbon fiber laminates","volume":"119","author":"Lona Batista","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Failure Anal."},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymertesting.2025.108876","article-title":"Enhancing\nmechanical and thermal properties of isophthalic\npolyester resin composites reinforced with graphene oxide and nanosilica\nusing RSM and ANN","volume":"149","author":"Azhagarsamy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Polym. Test."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026100610462038700_cit3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1545","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.iecr.1c04116","article-title":"Recent Advances\nin Graphene-Based Polymer Nanocomposites and Foams for Electromagnetic\nInterference Shielding Applications","volume":"61","author":"Panahi-Sarmad","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ind. Eng.\nChem. Res."},{"issue":"12","key":"2026100610462038700_cit4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3114","DOI":"10.1002\/app.11335","article-title":"Monitoring of nylon\n6,6\/carbon fiber\ncomposites processing by x-ray diffraction and thermal analysis","volume":"86","author":"Botelho","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmats.2022.874169","article-title":"Fullerene\nReinforced Polymeric Nanocomposites for Energy Storage - Status and\nPrognoses","volume":"9","author":"KAUSAR","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Mater."},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1038\/s41565-023-01541-w","article-title":"Polymer\nnanocomposite dielectrics for capacitive\nenergy storage","volume":"19","author":"YANG","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2019.123124","article-title":"A renewable resveratrol-based\nepoxy resin with high Tg, excellent mechanical properties and low\nflammability","volume":"383","author":"Tian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"issue":"8","key":"2026100610462038700_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs7080313","article-title":"Effects of carbon nanotubes\non thermal behavior of epoxy resin composites","volume":"7","author":"Najmi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Compos. Sci."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026100610462038700_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1080\/03602559.2015.1070874","article-title":"Exploration of epoxy\nresins, hardening systems, and epoxy\/carbon nanotube composite designed\nfor high performance materials: a review","volume":"55","author":"Rafique","year":"2016","journal-title":"Polym.-Plast.\nTechnol. Eng."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026100610462038700_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/aerospace9040222","article-title":"High-performance properties\nof an aerospace epoxy resin loaded with carbon nanofibers and glycidyl\npolyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane","volume":"9","author":"Guadagno","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aerospace"},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rechem.2021.100163","article-title":"Graphene synthesis,\ncharacterization and its applications: A review","volume":"3","author":"MbayachiI","year":"2021","journal-title":"Results in Chemistry"},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.flatc.2020.100184","article-title":"Graphene-based functional\nnanomaterials for biomedical and bioanalysis applications","volume":"23","author":"Mathew","year":"2020","journal-title":"FlatChem"},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-102577-2.00003-8","article-title":"Synthesis, properties, and\napplications of graphene","volume-title":"Fundamentals\nand Sensing Applications of 2D Materials","author":"Trivedi","year":"2019"},{"issue":"7","key":"2026100610462038700_cit14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6374","DOI":"10.1002\/pc.28203","article-title":"The effect of graphene\noxide on thermal, electrical, and mechanical\nproperties of carbon\/epoxy composites: Towards multifunctional composite\nmaterial","volume":"42","author":"Pramodkumar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Polym. Compos."},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paerosci.2025.101142","article-title":"Graphene-enhanced epoxy composites:\nA comprehensive review of dispersion mechanisms, processing strategies,\nproperty optimization, characterization and sustainable innovations","volume":"158","author":"Ahmed","year":"2025","journal-title":"Progress in Aerospace Sciences"},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10965-022-02971-1","article-title":"Epoxy resin reinforced\nwith graphene derivatives: physical and dielectric\nproperties","volume":"29","author":"Rehim","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Polym. Res."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026100610462038700_cit17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1080\/25740881.2021.1967391","article-title":"A review on the recent\nadvances on improving the properties of epoxy nanocomposites for thermal,\nmechanical, and tribological applications: challenges and recommendations","volume":"61","author":"Ogbonna","year":"2022","journal-title":"Polym.-Plast. Technol. Mater."},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rineng.2025.104875","article-title":"Optimizing\nmechanical properties of recycled aggregate\nconcrete with graphene oxide and steel fibers: A predictive approach\nusing ANN and RSM","volume":"26","author":"Azhagarsamy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Res. Eng."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026100610462038700_cit19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/cryst13020285","article-title":"The influence of nanoparticle\ndispersions on mechanical and thermal properties of polymer nanocomposites\nusing SLA 3D printing","volume":"13","author":"Shah","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crystals"},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10965-021-02760-2","article-title":"Enhanced dispersion\nand mechanical properties of hydrophobized graphene oxide\/butyl rubber\nnanocomposites via solution process","volume":"28","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Polym.\nRes."},{"issue":"23","key":"2026100610462038700_cit21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202003213","article-title":"Principles\ngoverning control of aggregation\nand dispersion of graphene and graphene oxide in polymer melts","volume":"32","author":"Suter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7207","DOI":"10.1007\/s10570-024-06055-9","article-title":"Recent advances on nanocellulose\u2013graphene\noxide composites: a review","volume":"31","author":"Mokhena","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cellulose"},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2018.11.066","article-title":"Influence of ultrasonication\non the dispersion and enhancing effect of graphene oxide\u2013carbon\nnanotube hybrid nanoreinforcement in cementitious composite","volume":"164","author":"Gao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Composites, Part B"},{"issue":"8","key":"2026100610462038700_cit24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/polym8080281","article-title":"Mechanical, thermal,\nand electrical properties of graphene-epoxy nanocomposites \u2013\na review","volume":"8","author":"Atif","year":"2016","journal-title":"Polymers"},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2021.02.059","article-title":"Epoxy\/graphene nanocomposites\nprepared by in-situ microwaving","volume":"177","author":"Naeem","year":"2021","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026100610462038700_cit26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/0021998316665239","article-title":"How the use of solvent\naffects the mechanical behavior of polyester resin\/carbon nanotube\nnanocomposites","volume":"51","author":"Galtieri","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Compos. Mater."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026100610462038700_cit27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/s40089-018-0260-4","article-title":"Methods for dispersing\ncarbon nanotubes for nanotechnology\napplications: liquid nanocrystals, suspensions, polyelectrolytes,\ncolloids and organization control","volume":"9","author":"Manzetti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Nano\nLett."},{"issue":"10","key":"2026100610462038700_cit28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7130","DOI":"10.1002\/pc.26776","article-title":"Enhance\nthe mechanical properties of epoxy\nresin reinforced with functionalized graphene oxide nanocomposites\nprepared by atom transfer radical polymerization","volume":"43","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Polym. Compos."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026100610462038700_cit29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.5b09830","article-title":"Green preparation\nof epoxy\/graphene\noxide nanocomposites using a glycidylamine epoxy resin as the surface\nmodifier and phase transfer agent of graphene oxide","volume":"7","author":"Tang","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026100610462038700_cit30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/c10020052","article-title":"In situ processing to achieve high-performance\nepoxy nanocomposites with low graphene oxide loading","volume":"10","author":"Mirzapour","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Carbon Res."},{"issue":"11","key":"2026100610462038700_cit31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5001","DOI":"10.1002\/pc.27931","article-title":"Enhancing the mechanical performance\nof E-glass fiber epoxy composites using coal-derived graphene oxide","volume":"45","author":"Garg","year":"2023","journal-title":"Poly. Compos."},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2020.124752","article-title":"Covalentemente introduzindo\nnanodiamantes amino-funcionalizados em poliuretano a\u0300 base de\na\u0301gua via polimerizac\u0327a\u0303o in situ: melhoria da condutividade\nte\u0301rmica e excelente isolamento ele\u0301trico","volume":"596","author":"Nan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Colloids Surf., A"},{"issue":"7","key":"2026100610462038700_cit33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1002\/app.1990.070390711","article-title":"Characterization\nof interfacial interactions\nin high density polyethylene filled with glass spheres using dynamic-mechanical\nanalysis","volume":"39","author":"Kuba\u0301t","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"issue":"32","key":"2026100610462038700_cit34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14948","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-024-10061-4","article-title":"Review of scientific\nliterature and standard guidelines for the characterization of graphene-based\nmaterials","volume":"59","author":"Alves","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/5047641","article-title":"Effect of Graphene Oxide-Boron\nNitride-Based Dual Fillers on Mechanical Behavior of Epoxy\/Glass Fiber\nComposites","volume":"2021","author":"Kavimani","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nanomater."},{"issue":"15","key":"2026100610462038700_cit36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14594","DOI":"10.1021\/acsanm.3c03197","article-title":"Simplified one-pot synthesis\nof graphene oxide from different coals and its potential application\nin enhancing the mechanical performance of GFRP nanocomposites","volume":"6","author":"Garg","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Nano Mater."},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2021.05.007","article-title":"A facile method\nfor coal to graphene oxide and its\napplication to a biosensor","volume":"181","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s42824-024-00117-w","article-title":"Sustainable synthesis\nof graphene oxide from waste sources: a comprehensive review of methods\nand applications","volume":"6","author":"Silva","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Circ. Econ."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026100610462038700_cit39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/c7020041","article-title":"Thermogravimetric analysis\n(TGA) of graphene materials: effect of particle size of graphene,\ngraphene oxide and graphite on thermal parameters","volume":"7","author":"Farivar","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Carbon Res."},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1007\/s10973-020-09719-3","article-title":"Comparison of thermally\nand chemically reduced graphene oxides by thermal analysis and Raman\nspectroscopy","volume":"142","author":"Farah","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Therm. Anal. Calorim."},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2021.04.064","article-title":"Unlocking thermogravimetric\nanalysis (TGA) in the fight against \u201cFake graphene\u201d\nmaterials","volume":"179","author":"Farivar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026100610462038700_cit42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1007\/s12221-014-0326-5","article-title":"Mechanical and thermal\nproperties of epoxy composites containing graphene oxide and liquid\ncrystalline epoxy","volume":"15","author":"QI","year":"2014","journal-title":"Fibers Polym."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026100610462038700_cit43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs5030091","article-title":"Effect of Graphene Oxide\nas a Reinforcement in a Bio-Epoxy Composite","volume":"5","author":"Loeffen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Compos. Sci."},{"issue":"19","key":"2026100610462038700_cit44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/app.43635","article-title":"Structure\u2013property\nrelationships of a bio-based reactive diluent in a bio-based epoxy\nresin","volume":"133","author":"Maiorana","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"issue":"6","key":"2026100610462038700_cit45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2152","DOI":"10.1002\/pc.26267","article-title":"The relation of porosity\nand creep behavior of glass fiber\/epoxy composite: Design of experiments\napproach","volume":"42","author":"Alves","year":"2021","journal-title":"Polym. Compos."},{"issue":"8","key":"2026100610462038700_cit46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2010.09.003","article-title":"Nanodiamond\/poly (lactic\nacid) nanocomposites: Effect of nanodiamond on structure and properties\nof poly (lactic acid)","volume":"41","author":"Zhao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Composites, Part B"},{"key":"2026100610462038700_cit47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3035","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-018-3076-8","article-title":"Understanding the cross-linking\nreactions in highly oxidized graphene\/epoxy nanocomposite systems","volume":"54","author":"Vryonis","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mater. 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