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By heating the \u03b1-Fe2O3\/SnO2\u2013TiO2 electrode in an inert atmosphere, such as argon or nitrogen, the photocurrent increased to over 2 mA\/cm2 at 1.23 V versus a reversible hydrogen electrode, which is 10 times higher than that of pure hematite under 1 sun (100 mW\/cm2, AM 1.5G) light illumination. For the first time, we found a significant morphological difference between argon and nitrogen gas heat-treated hematite films and discussed the consequences for photoresponse. The origin for the enhancement, probed via theoretical modeling, stems from the facile incorporation of low formation energy dopants into the Fe2O3 layer at the interface of the metal oxide nanohybrid overlayer, which decreases recombination by increasing the electrical conductivity of Fe2O3. These dopants diffuse from the overlayer into the \u03b1-Fe2O3 layer readily under inert gas heat treatment. This simple yet effective strategy could be applied to other dopants to increase hematite performance for solar energy conversion applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.8b02444","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,16]],"date-time":"2019-01-16T13:44:50Z","timestamp":1547646290000},"page":"1449-1459","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Origin of High-Efficiency Photoelectrochemical Water\nSplitting on Hematite\/Functional Nanohybrid Metal Oxide Overlayer\nPhotoanode after a Low Temperature Inert Gas Annealing Treatment"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2284-707X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"SocMan","family":"Ho-Kimura","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , 20 Gordon Street , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1H 0AJ"]},{"name":"University of Macau , , Avenida da Universidade , , ,","place":["Taipa, Macau SAR, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6242-1121","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Benjamin A. D.","family":"Williamson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , 20 Gordon Street , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1H 0AJ"]},{"name":"University College London , , Gower Street , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1E 6BT"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5206-9558","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sanjayan","family":"Sathasivam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , 20 Gordon Street , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1H 0AJ"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Savio J. A.","family":"Moniz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , Torrington Place , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1E 7JE"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guanjie","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , 20 Gordon Street , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1H 0AJ"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6760-6929","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Wenjun","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , Torrington Place , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1E 7JE"]},{"name":"Nanjing University , , ,","place":["Nanjing, P. R. China, 210093"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9174-8601","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"David O.","family":"Scanlon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , 20 Gordon Street , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1H 0AJ"]},{"name":"University College London , , Gower Street , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1E 6BT"]},{"name":"Diamond Light Source Ltd. , Diamond House, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus , Didcot, ,","place":["Oxfordshire, U.K., OX11 0DE"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2323-5510","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Junwang","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , Torrington Place , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1E 7JE"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ivan P.","family":"Parkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , 20 Gordon Street , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1H 0AJ"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2006.01.014","article-title":"Efficiency\nof solar water splitting\nusing semiconductor electrodes","volume":"31","author":"Murphy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. 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Electrochem.\nSoc."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7681","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201402742","article-title":"Understanding\nthe Role of Underlayers and Overlayers in Thin Film Hematite Photoanodes","volume":"24","author":"Steier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6405","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201003110","article-title":"Light-induced\nwater splitting with hematite: improved nanostructure and iridium\noxide catalysis","volume":"49","author":"Tilley","year":"2010","journal-title":"Angew. Chem., Int. Ed."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7436","DOI":"10.1021\/ja101564f","article-title":"Photoelectrochemical\nWater Splitting with Mesoporous Hematite Prepared by a Solution-Based\nColloidal Approach","volume":"132","author":"Sivula","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15714","DOI":"10.1021\/ja064380l","article-title":"New Benchmark for Water Photooxidation\nby Nanostructured \u03b1-Fe2O3Films","volume":"128","author":"Kay","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Am.\nChem. Soc."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1021\/cm903135j","article-title":"Electrodeposited\nAluminum-Doped \u03b1-Fe2O3 Photoelectrodes:\nExperiment and Theory","volume":"22","author":"Kleiman-Shwarsctein","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5852","DOI":"10.1021\/am500643y","article-title":"Improving\nthe Efficiency of Hematite Nanorods for Photoelectrochemical Water\nSplitting by Doping with Manganese","volume":"6","author":"Gurudayal","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACS Appl.\nMater. 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Acta"},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jssc.2008.06.049","article-title":"Impact of\nstructural features on pigment properties of \u03b1-Fe2O3 haematite","volume":"181","author":"Pailhe\u0301","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Solid State Chem."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11834","DOI":"10.1039\/c3cp55174a","article-title":"Iron based\nphotoanodes for solar fuel production","volume":"16","author":"Bassi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phys.\nChem. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24610","DOI":"10.1039\/c4cp03946g","article-title":"Tin doping speeds up hole transfer\nduring light-driven water oxidation\nat hematite photoanodes","volume":"16","author":"Dunn","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7050","DOI":"10.1021\/jp112279k","article-title":"Photoelectrochemical Properties of\nFe2O3\u2013SnO2 Films Prepared\nby Sol\u2013Gel Method","volume":"115","author":"Uchiyama","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3242","DOI":"10.1039\/c5ee01679g","article-title":"What do you do, titanium? Insight into the role of\ntitanium oxide as a water oxidation promoter in hematite-based photoanodes","volume":"8","author":"Monllor-Satoca","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Environ. Sci."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1500313","DOI":"10.1002\/admi.201500313","article-title":"Water Splitting: Fe2O3\u2013TiO2 Nano-heterostructure Photoanodes for\nHighly Efficient Solar Water Oxidation","volume":"2","author":"Barreca","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv.\nMater. 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Sci."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7441","DOI":"10.1103\/physrevb.51.7441","article-title":"Theoretical\nStudy of Electronic,\nMagnetic, and Structural Properties of \u03b1-Fe2O3 (hematite)","volume":"51","author":"Catti","year":"1995","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B: Condens.\nMatter Mater. Phys."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5362","DOI":"10.1063\/1.327451","article-title":"Crystal Structure\nand Isothermal Compression of Fe2O3, Cr2O3, and V2O3 to 50 Kbars","volume":"51","author":"Finger","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1021\/cm903135j","article-title":"Electrodeposited\nAluminum-Doped \u03b1-Fe2O3 Photoelectrodes:\nExperiment and Theory","volume":"22","author":"Kleiman-Shwarsctein","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"035108","DOI":"10.1103\/physrevb.79.035108","article-title":"Band-Gap Measurements\nof Bulk and Nanoscale Hematite by Soft x-Ray Spectroscopy","volume":"79","author":"Gilbert","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2027","DOI":"10.1039\/f19837902027","article-title":"Electrochemistry\nand Photoelectrochemistry of Iron(III) Oxide","volume":"79","author":"Dare-Edwards","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1"},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5264","DOI":"10.1039\/c0cp02408b","article-title":"Kinetics of Oxygen\nEvolution at\u202f\u03b1-Fe2O3 Photoanodes:\nA Study by Photoelectrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy","volume":"13","author":"Upul Wijayantha","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit42","unstructured":"Yan, Y.; Huda, M.; Walsh, a.; Wei, S.; Al-Jassim, M.; Turner, J.; Garland, R.\n          Theory of Oxides for Photo-Electrochemical\nHydrogen\nProduction.  Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program\n2009 Annual Report; U.S. Department of Energy, 2009; pp 208\u2013211."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123712","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3432736","article-title":"Electronic,\nStructural, and Magnetic Effects of 3d Transition Metals in Hematite","volume":"107","author":"Huda","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22179","DOI":"10.1039\/c5cp01489a","article-title":"(Ti\/Zr,N)\nCodoped Hematite for Enhancing the Photoelectrochemical Activity of\nWater Splitting","volume":"17","author":"Pan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112104","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3567766","article-title":"Enhanced Photoelectrochemical Activity\nfor Cu and Ti Doped Hematite: The First Principles Calculations","volume":"98","author":"Meng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15832","DOI":"10.1021\/am5030879","article-title":"Fabrication of SnO2 \/ \u03b1-Fe2O3, SnO2 \/\n\u03b1-Fe2O3 \u2013 PB Heterostructure Thin\nFilms\u202f: Enhanced Photodegradation\nand Peroxide Sensing","volume":"6","author":"Jana","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"2026090209244348200_cit47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7681","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201402742","article-title":"Understanding\nthe Role of Underlayers and Overlayers in Thin Film Hematite Photoanodes","volume":"24","author":"Steier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. 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