{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T13:48:36Z","timestamp":1790344116899,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777852800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1925267"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1925267"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000057","name":"National Institute of General Medical Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P20GM130418"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20GM130418"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000057","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>BACKGROUND: Influenza remains a significant public health threat with pandemic potential. Understanding environmental factors influencing virus spread and severity is critical, particularly as wildfires become more frequent and intense. While temperature and humidity\u2019s roles in virus seasonality and persistence are well understood, the impacts of air pollution\u2500especially wildfire-specific particulate matter (PM2.5)\u2500on respiratory infections are less explored. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to investigate the association between wildfire PM2.5 exposure and influenza or influenza-like illness (ILI) incidence. Specifically, we assessed (1) the long-term impact of PM2.5 exposure during the preceding wildfire season on influenza\/ILI risk in the following flu season, and (2) the effects of short-term PM2.5 exposure during the active flu season. METHODS: We utilized ILI and influenza data from state health departments in six Western U.S. states (Arizona, Colorado, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington) from 2010 to 2019. We applied generalized linear distributed lag models to assess the impact of PM2.5 exposure during the preceding wildfire season on influenza or ILI risk in the subsequent flu season, as well as the effect of short-term PM2.5 exposure during the current flu season. RESULTS: Long-term exposure to wildfire PM2.5 was associated with increased influenza risk in states with influenza data: Arizona ([Rate Ratio (RR) = 1.061 (1.026\u20131.100)]), Colorado [RR = 1.067 (1.056\u20131.078)], Montana [RR = 1.038 (1.013\u20131.063)], and Oregon [RR = 1.049 (1.041\u20131.057)], per 10 \u03bcg\/m3 PM2.5 increase. However, the states with only ILI data did not follow this pattern, revealing no observed effect in Nevada [RR = 1.005 (0.920\u20131.097)] and a negative effect in Washington [RR = 0.884 (0.842\u20130.919)]. Similarly, but to a lesser degree, short-term PM2.5 exposure effects were noted in states with only influenza data but not ILI data. DISCUSSION: Our findings underscore a positive association between wildfire-specific PM2.5 and influenza risk in states with influenza data, suggesting a differential effect of PM2.5 on respiratory infections. This study supports further investigation into the causative mechanisms behind these correlations, particularly considering the increasing frequency of wildfires and the resulting air quality impacts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/ehp.6c00326","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T18:35:31Z","timestamp":1777919731000},"page":"397-407","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Wildfire-Season Fine\nParticulate Matter Exposure and\nAssociations with Influenza and Influenza-like-Illness Risk in the\nWestern USA"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"134","author":[{"given":"Ava","family":"Orr","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Montana , , , ,","place":["Missoula, Montana, United States, 59812"]},{"name":"University of Montana , , , ,","place":["Missoula, Montana, United States, 59812"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nisha B.","family":"Alden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment , , ,","place":["Denver, Colorado, United States, 80246"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Austin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment , , ,","place":["Denver, Colorado, United States, 80246"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zeina","family":"Jaffar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Montana , , , ,","place":["Missoula, Montana, United States, 59812"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonathon","family":"Knudson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Montana , , , ,","place":["Missoula, Montana, United States, 59812"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jon","family":"Graham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Montana , , , ,","place":["Missoula, Montana, United States, 59812"]},{"name":"Mathematical Sciences, University of Montana , , ,","place":["Missoula, Montana, United States, 59812"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher T.","family":"Migliaccio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Montana , , , ,","place":["Missoula, Montana, United States, 59812"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Curtis","family":"Noonan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Montana , , , ,","place":["Missoula, Montana, United States, 59812"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shawn","family":"Urbanski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USDA Forest Service , , , ,","place":["Missoula, Montana, United States, 59812"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maximilian","family":"Wegener","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nevada Division of Public and Behavioral Health, Office of the State Epidemiologist , , ,","place":["Carson City, Nevada, United States, 89706"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erin L.","family":"Landguth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Montana , , , ,","place":["Missoula, Montana, United States, 59812"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026080409223395400_cit1","volume-title":"World\nmust be ready to respond to next pandemic: WHO chief","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026080409223395400_cit2","volume-title":"Seasonal\nInfluenza (flu)","year":"2020"},{"key":"2026080409223395400_cit3","volume-title":"Global\nInfluenza Programme Surveillance and Monitoring","year":"2014"},{"key":"2026080409223395400_cit4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.med.51.1.407","article-title":"Global epidemiology of influenza:\npast and present","volume":"51","author":"Cox","year":"2000","journal-title":"Annu. 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