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To address this, a novel manual grab\u2010sampling method (MGSM) is developed to effectively and efficiently locate continuous contamination sources in a WDS using a dynamic and cyclical sampling strategy. The grab samples are collected at a pre\u2010specified number of hydrants by the corresponding teams followed by laboratory tests. The MGSM optimizes the sampling plan at each cycle by making the probability of contamination source(s) in each sub\u2010network as equal as possible, where sub\u2010networks are determined by the selected hydrants and current flow pipe directions. The CS's size is reduced at each cycle by exploiting sample testing results obtained in the previous cycle until there are no further hydrants to sample from. Two real\u2010world WDSs are used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed MGSM. The results obtained show that the MGSM can significantly reduce the spatial range of the CS (to about 5% of the entire WDS) for a range of scenarios including multiple contamination sources and pipe flow direction changes. We found that an optimal number of sampling teams exists for a given WDS, representing a balanced trade\u2010off between detection efficiency and sampling\/testing budgets. Due to its relative simplicity, the proposed MGSM can be used in engineering practice straightaway and it represents a viable alternative to the methods associated with water quality models and sensors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1029\/2022wr032784","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,21]],"date-time":"2022-10-21T21:49:40Z","timestamp":1666388980000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["An Effective and Efficient Method for Identification of Contamination Sources in Water Distribution Systems Based on Manual Grab\u2010Sampling"],"prefix":"10.1029","volume":"58","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8920-1471","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yiran","family":"Ji","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture Zhejiang University  Zhejiang China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3048-7086","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Feifei","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture Zhejiang University  Zhejiang China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jiawen","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture Zhejiang University  Zhejiang China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuan","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Water Conservancy &amp; Hydropower Engineering Hohai University  Nanjing China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Weiwei","family":"Bi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering Zhejiang University of Technology  Zhejiang China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9200-904X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Huan\u2010Feng","family":"Duan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering The Hong Kong Polytechnic University  Hung Hom Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9567-9041","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dragan","family":"Savic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KWR Water Research Institute  Nieuwegein The Netherlands"},{"name":"Centre for Water Systems University of Exeter  Exeter UK"},{"name":"Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia  Bangi Malaysia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0934-4470","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zoran","family":"Kapelan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Water Management Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences Delft University of Technology  Delft The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2019.02.027"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0024-3795(94)00344-d"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11081-011-9141-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1061\/(asce)wr.1943-5452.0001383"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_6_1","unstructured":"ChinaNews. 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