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However, despite small differences in insolation forcing, vegetation and hydrology in southern Europe during past interglacials are variable and the gradual change in insolation cannot explain the observed short\u2010lived forest optimum. Here we focus on vegetation and hydroclimatic changes at orbital\u2010 and suborbital\u2010scales in southwestern Europe during two past warm interglacial periods with reduced ice\u2010sheets, namely Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 9e and 5e. We provide new pollen and sea surface temperatures records for MIS 9e from IODP Site U1385. This pollen record shows a forest expansion in southern Iberia over a 14\u00a0ky interval, bracketed by the millennial\u2010scale cooling events of Termination IV and MIS 9d. Between 334.5 and 332.5\u00a0ka, forest expansion reached a maximum, suggesting increased winter moisture during early MIS 9e. Model\u2010data comparison for MIS 9e and 5e shows that insolation is the main driver of the orbital\u2010scale vegetation and precipitation changes in Iberia, atmospheric CO<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> forcing playing a secondary role. The high\u2010frequency component of the MIS 9e and 5e forest timeseries highlights the early interglacial forest and precipitation maxima as prominent suborbital events lasting \u223c2\u00a0ky. We propose that the primarily insolation\u2010driven forest and precipitation optima were fostered by the non\u2010equilibrium conditions generated by the millennial\u2010scale deglacial variability during the early interglacials. Additionally, the early end of these optima may have been favored by a cooling and drying event that is part of the persistent intra\u2010interglacial variability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1029\/2024pa004846","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,4]],"date-time":"2024-10-04T06:10:45Z","timestamp":1728022245000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Millennial\u2010Scale Climate Variability Potentially Shaped the Early Interglacial Optimum in Southern Europe"],"prefix":"10.1029","volume":"39","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4400-679X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"St\u00e9phanie","family":"Desprat","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Environnements et Pal\u00e9oenvironnements Oc\u00e9aniques et Continentaux (EPOC, UMR 5805) CNRS Bordeaux INP EPHE Universit\u00e9 de Bordeaux PSL University  Pessac France"}]},{"given":"Gauthier","family":"Guillem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environnements et Pal\u00e9oenvironnements Oc\u00e9aniques et Continentaux (EPOC, UMR 5805) CNRS Bordeaux INP EPHE Universit\u00e9 de Bordeaux PSL University  Pessac France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8238-7488","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Fernanda","family":"S\u00e1nchez Go\u00f1i","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environnements et Pal\u00e9oenvironnements Oc\u00e9aniques et Continentaux (EPOC, UMR 5805) CNRS Bordeaux INP EPHE Universit\u00e9 de Bordeaux PSL University  Pessac France"}]},{"given":"Teresa","family":"Rodrigues","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Divis\u00e3o de Geologia e Georecursos Marinhos Instituto Portugu\u00eas do Mar e da Atmosfera  Lisboa Portugal"},{"name":"Centro de Ci\u00eancias do Mar (CCMAR) Universidade do Algarve  Faro Portugal"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7189-8335","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qiuzhen","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth and Climate Research Center Earth and Life Institute Universit\u00e9 Catholique de Louvain  Louvain\u2010la\u2010Neuve Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7391-5768","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joan O.","family":"Grimalt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA) CSIC  Barcelona Spain"}]}],"member":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5194\/cp\u201013\u20101901\u20102017"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quaint.2020.04.044"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467\u2010021\u201022388\u20106"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2019PA003661"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1203580"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5194\/cp\u20109\u20101715\u20102013"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/2014gl061957"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0277\u20103791(91)90033\u2010q"},{"volume-title":"Los bosques ib\u00e9ricos","year":"1997","author":"Blanco Castro E.","key":"e_1_2_8_10_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/RG008i001p00169"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1130\/G24519A.1"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520\u20100493(1980)108<1293:LSRBSS>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0959683614530439"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1204673"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382\u2010008\u20100480\u20109"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms14595"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4000\/quaternaire.8102"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Desprat S. 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