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Most unconventional computing systems<jats:sup>1\u20137<\/jats:sup> target either AI or optimization workloads and rely on frequent, energy-intensive digital conversions, limiting efficiency. These systems also face application-hardware mismatches, whether handling memory-bottlenecked neural models, mapping real-world optimization problems or contending with inherent analog noise. Here we introduce an analog optical computer (AOC) that combines analog electronics and three-dimensional optics to accelerate AI inference and combinatorial optimization in a single platform. This dual-domain capability is enabled by a rapid fixed-point search, which avoids digital conversions and enhances noise robustness. With this fixed-point abstraction, the AOC implements emerging compute-bound neural models with recursive reasoning potential and realizes an advanced gradient-descent approach for expressive optimization. We demonstrate the benefits of co-designing the hardware and abstraction, echoing the co-evolution of digital accelerators and deep learning models, through four case studies: image classification, nonlinear regression, medical image reconstruction and financial transaction settlement. Built with scalable, consumer-grade technologies, the AOC paves a promising path for faster and sustainable computing. Its native support for iterative, compute-intensive models offers a scalable analog platform for fostering future innovation in AI and optimization.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-09430-z","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]],"date-time":"2025-09-03T15:02:41Z","timestamp":1756911761000},"page":"354-361","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Analog optical computer for AI inference and combinatorial optimization"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"645","author":[{"given":"Kirill P.","family":"Kalinin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jannes","family":"Gladrow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiaqi","family":"Chu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-3428-7161","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James H.","family":"Clegg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6444-9149","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel","family":"Cletheroe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Douglas J.","family":"Kelly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0856-9635","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Babak","family":"Rahmani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7081-0509","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Grace","family":"Brennan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Burcu","family":"Canakci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabian","family":"Falck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Hansen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jim","family":"Kleewein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Heiner","family":"Kremer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Greg","family":"O\u2019Shea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lucinda","family":"Pickup","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saravan","family":"Rajmohan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-5936-6895","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant","family":"Rowstron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8957-7628","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victor","family":"Ruhle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3719-3403","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lee","family":"Braine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-2164-9587","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shrirang","family":"Khedekar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Natalia G.","family":"Berloff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6898-2368","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christos","family":"Gkantsidis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7784-2829","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Parmigiani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1573-3314","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hitesh","family":"Ballani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"9430_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1038\/s41566-020-00754-y","volume":"15","author":"BJ Shastri","year":"2021","unstructured":"Shastri, B. 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