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Med."],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>The reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) approach has been widely used to detect the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). However, instead of using it alone, clinicians often prefer to diagnose the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) by utilizing a combination of clinical signs and symptoms, laboratory test, imaging measurement (e.g., chest computed tomography scan), and multivariable clinical prediction models, including the electronic nose. Here, we report on the development and use of a low cost, noninvasive method to rapidly sniff out COVID-19 based on a portable electronic nose (GeNose C19) integrating an array of metal oxide semiconductor gas sensors, optimized feature extraction, and machine learning models. This approach was evaluated in profiling tests involving a total of 615 breath samples composed of 333 positive and 282 negative samples. The samples were obtained from 43 positive and 40 negative COVID-19 patients, respectively, and confirmed with RT-qPCR at two hospitals located in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Four different machine learning algorithms (i.e., linear discriminant analysis, support vector machine, stacked multilayer perceptron, and deep neural network) were utilized to identify the top-performing pattern recognition methods and to obtain a high system detection accuracy (88\u201395%), sensitivity (86\u201394%), and specificity (88\u201395%) levels from the testing datasets. Our results suggest that GeNose C19 can be considered a highly potential breathalyzer for fast COVID-19 screening.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-022-00661-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,16]],"date-time":"2022-08-16T09:03:48Z","timestamp":1660640628000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":92,"title":["Fast and noninvasive electronic nose for sniffing out COVID-19 based on exhaled breath-print recognition"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6262-3586","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dian Kesumapramudya","family":"Nurputra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmad","family":"Kusumaatmaja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamad Saifudin","family":"Hakim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1602-9783","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shidiq Nur","family":"Hidayat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0265-1806","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Trisna","family":"Julian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1114-6657","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Budi","family":"Sumanto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yodi","family":"Mahendradhata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonia Morita Iswari","family":"Saktiawati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4522-3625","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hutomo Suryo","family":"Wasisto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kuwat","family":"Triyana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"661_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-018-0118-9","volume":"17","author":"J Cui","year":"2019","unstructured":"Cui, J., Li, F. & Shi, Z.-L. 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K.T. declares no competing financial interest but the following competing non-financial interest in terms of a patent that has been assigned to Universitas Gadjah Mada that is relevant to the subject of this manuscript. The patent application of GeNose C19 technology with a number of IDP000074761 entitled \u201cUnit Hidung Elektronik yang Dilengkapi Dehumidifier untuk Meningkatkan Unjuk Kerja terhadap Sampel Cairan\u201d has been submitted on 29 November 2017 and subsequently granted on 1 February 2021. The claims include a stable sampling and purging system using micropump, sensor array arrangement, control and data acquisition system, and data analysis system. H.S.W., S.N.H., and T.J. declare no competing financial interest. However, H.S.W. is Founder and S.N.H. and T.J. are Directors at PT Nanosense Instrument Indonesia, which is a tech startup involved in the industry consortium of GeNose C19 contributing to the development of artificial intelligence for the electronic nose (GeNose C19). D.K.N., A.K., M.S.H., Y.M., and A.M.S. declare no competing financial or non-financial interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"115"}}