{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T17:32:50Z","timestamp":1784568770065,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,22]],"date-time":"2024-03-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711065600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,22]],"date-time":"2024-03-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1711065600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["npj Digit. Med."],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>The use of digital twins (DTs) has proliferated across various fields and industries, with a recent surge in the healthcare sector. The concept of digital twin for health (DT4H) holds great promise to revolutionize the entire healthcare system, including management and delivery, disease treatment and prevention, and health well-being maintenance, ultimately improving human life. The rapid growth of big data and continuous advancement in data science (DS) and artificial intelligence (AI) have the potential to significantly expedite DT research and development by providing scientific expertise, essential data, and robust cybertechnology infrastructure. Although various DT initiatives have been underway in the industry, government, and military, DT4H is still in its early stages. This paper presents an overview of the current applications of DTs in healthcare, examines consortium research centers and their limitations, and surveys the current landscape of emerging research and development opportunities in healthcare. We envision the emergence of a collaborative global effort among stakeholders to enhance healthcare and improve the quality of life for millions of individuals worldwide through pioneering research and development in the realm of DT technology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-024-01073-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,22]],"date-time":"2024-03-22T17:02:43Z","timestamp":1711126963000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":632,"title":["Digital twins for health: a scoping review"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Evangelia","family":"Katsoulakis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qi","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huanmei","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6234-8449","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leili","family":"Shahriyari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Fletcher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2298-5974","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jinwei","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luke","family":"Achenie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongfang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pamela","family":"Jackson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tanveer","family":"Syeda-Mahmood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Tuli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"1073_CR1","first-page":"9","volume":"11","author":"E Negri","year":"2017","unstructured":"Negri, E., Fumagalli, L. & Macchi, M. A review of the roles of Digital Twin in CPS-based production systems. Procedia Manuf. 11, 9 (2017).","journal-title":"Procedia Manuf."},{"key":"1073_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-019-0701-3","volume":"12","author":"B Bjornsson","year":"2019","unstructured":"Bjornsson, B. et al. Digital twins to personalize medicine. Genome Med. 12, 4 (2019).","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"1073_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"758099","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2021.758099","volume":"8","author":"JA Douthwaite","year":"2021","unstructured":"Douthwaite, J. A. et al. A Modular Digital Twinning Framework for Safety Assurance of Collaborative Robotics. Front. Robot AI 8, 758099 (2021).","journal-title":"Front. Robot AI"},{"key":"1073_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grieves, M. W. Product lifecycle management: The new paradigm for enterprises. Int. J. Prod. 2 (2005).","DOI":"10.1504\/IJPD.2005.006669"},{"key":"1073_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Glaessgen, E. S. D. The Digital Twin Paradigm for Future NASA and U.S. Air Force Vehicles. Proceedings of the 53rd AIAA\/ASME\/ASCE\/AHS\/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Honolulu, HI, USA (2012).","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2012-1818"},{"key":"1073_CR6","unstructured":"Piascik, B. et al. Materials, Structures, Mechanical Systems, andManufacturing Roadmap \u2013 Technology Area 12, NASA, draftedn. (2010)."},{"key":"1073_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sahal, R., Alsamhi, S. H. & Brown, K. N. Personal Digital Twin: A Close Look into the Present and a Step towards the Future of Personalised Healthcare Industry. Sensors (Basel) 22 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s22155918 (2022).","DOI":"10.3390\/s22155918"},{"key":"1073_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10916-020-01623-5","volume":"44","author":"A Croatti","year":"2020","unstructured":"Croatti, A., Gabellini, M., Montagna, S. & Ricci, A. On the Integration of Agents and Digital Twins in Healthcare. J. Med. Syst. 44, 161, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10916-020-01623-5 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Med. Syst."},{"key":"1073_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-022-00694-7","volume":"5","author":"KP Venkatesh","year":"2022","unstructured":"Venkatesh, K. P., Raza, M. M. & Kvedar, J. C. Health digital twins as tools for precision medicine: Considerations for computation, implementation, and regulation. NPJ Digit Med 5, 150, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41746-022-00694-7 (2022).","journal-title":"NPJ Digit Med"},{"key":"1073_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e16770","DOI":"10.2196\/16770","volume":"22","author":"G Fagherazzi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Fagherazzi, G. Deep Digital Phenotyping and Digital Twins for Precision Health: Time to Dig Deeper. J. Med Internet Res 22, e16770, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196\/16770 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Med Internet Res"},{"key":"1073_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205520762211496","DOI":"10.1177\/20552076221149651","volume":"9","author":"T Sun","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sun, T., He, X. & Li, Z. Digital twin in healthcare: Recent updates and challenges. Digit Health 9, 20552076221149651, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/20552076221149651 (2023).","journal-title":"Digit Health"},{"key":"1073_CR12","unstructured":"Lexma. Project Breath Easy Lexma Digital Twin Lung, http:\/\/projectbreatheasy.org\/ (2023)."},{"key":"1073_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euromechsol.2014.04.001","volume":"48","author":"B Baillargeon","year":"2014","unstructured":"Baillargeon, B., Rebelo, N., Fox, D. D., Taylor, R. L. & Kuhl, E. The Living Heart Project: A robust and integrative simulator for human heart function. Eur. J. Mech. A Solids 48, 38\u201347 (2014).","journal-title":"Eur. J. Mech. A Solids"},{"key":"1073_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-49656-2","volume":"9","author":"CK Fisher","year":"2019","unstructured":"Fisher, C. K. et al. Machine learning for comprehensive forecasting of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease progression. Sci. Rep. 9, 13622 (2019).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"1073_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kamel Boulos, M. N. & Zhang, P. Digital Twins: From Personalised Medicine to Precision Public Health. J. Pers. Med. 11 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jpm11080745 (2021).","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm11080745"},{"key":"1073_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angulo, C. Gonzalez-Abril L.; Raya, C.; Ortega, J. A. A proposal to evolving towards digital twins in healthcare. In Proceedings of the International Work-Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedical Engineering, Granada, Spain, 418\u2013427 (2020).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-45385-5_37"},{"key":"1073_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e37641","DOI":"10.2196\/37641","volume":"24","author":"S Elkefi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Elkefi, S. & Asan, O. Digital Twins for Managing Health Care Systems: Rapid Literature Review. J. Med. Internet Res. 24, e37641 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"1073_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nonnemann L., Haescher. M., Aehnelt M., Bieber G., Diener H., Urban B. Health@Hand a visual interface for eHealth monitoring. 2019 IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC); June 29-July3, 2019., 1093\u20131096. (2019).","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCC47284.2019.8969647"},{"key":"1073_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu Y., Lin. Z. & Yuan Y. A Novel Cloud-Based Framework for the Elderly Healthcare Services Using Digital Twin. IEEE Access, 49088\u201349101 (2019).","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2909828"},{"key":"1073_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"ooac072","DOI":"10.1093\/jamiaopen\/ooac072","volume":"5","author":"N Wickramasinghe","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wickramasinghe, N. et al. Digital twins to enable better precision and personalized dementia care. JAMIA Open 5, ooac072 (2022).","journal-title":"JAMIA Open"},{"key":"1073_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Diaz R. G., Fedwa L., El Saddik A. DTCoach: Your Digital Twin Coach on the Edge During COVID-19 and Beyond. IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine. 24 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/mim.2021.9513635 (2021).","DOI":"10.1109\/mim.2021.9513635"},{"key":"1073_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trobinger M. et al. A dual docto-patient twin paradigm for transparent remote examination, diagnosis, and rehabilitation. IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), 2933\u20132940 (2021).","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS51168.2021.9636626"},{"key":"1073_CR23","unstructured":"Healthineers, S. The Value of Digital Twin Technology, https:\/\/www.siemens-healthineers.com\/en-us\/services\/value-partnerships\/asset-center\/white-papers-articles\/value-of-digital-twin-technology."},{"key":"1073_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0142","DOI":"10.1097\/CCE.0000000000000142","volume":"2","author":"MJ Merkel","year":"2020","unstructured":"Merkel, M. J. et al. Statewide Real-Time Tracking of Beds and Ventilators During Coronavirus Disease 2019 and Beyond. Crit. Care Explor 2, e0142 (2020).","journal-title":"Crit. Care Explor"},{"key":"1073_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.12927\/hcq.2022.26885","volume":"25","author":"BE Collins","year":"2022","unstructured":"Collins, B. E. Reducing Hospital Harm: Establishing a Command Centre to Foster Situational Awareness. Health. Q 25, 75\u201381 (2022).","journal-title":"Health. Q"},{"key":"1073_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"907066","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2022.907066","volume":"9","author":"T Sun","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sun, T., He, X., Song, X., Shu, L. & Li, Z. The Digital Twin in Medicine: A Key to the Future of Healthcare? Front Med (Lausanne) 9, 907066 (2022).","journal-title":"Front Med (Lausanne)"},{"key":"1073_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccep.2023.01.008","volume":"15","author":"A Cresti","year":"2023","unstructured":"Cresti, A. & Camara, O. Left Atrial Thrombus-Are All Atria and Appendages Equal? Card. Electrophysiol. Clin. 15, 119\u2013132 (2023).","journal-title":"Card. Electrophysiol. Clin."},{"key":"1073_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2749","DOI":"10.1007\/s10554-021-02250-y","volume":"37","author":"JR Lopez-Minguez","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lopez-Minguez, J. R., Martinez-Caceres, G., Gonzalez-Fernandez, R., Nogales-Asensio, J. M. & Millan-Nunez, V. Applications designed to successfully implant in challenging left atrial appendage occlusion cases: a new tool for the interventional cardiologist. Int. J. Cardiovasc. Imag. 37, 2749\u20132751 (2021).","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiovasc. Imag."},{"key":"1073_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105912","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmpb.2020.105912","volume":"199","author":"C Zhou","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zhou, C. et al. Virtual patients for mechanical ventilation in the intensive care unit. Comput. Methods Prog. Biomed. 199, 105912 (2021).","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Prog. Biomed."},{"key":"1073_CR30","unstructured":"Onscale, L. Digital Twins of Lungs to Improve covid-19 patient outcomes, https:\/\/onscale.com\/blog\/project-breatheasy-digital-twins-of-lungs-to-improve-covid-19-patients-outcomes\/ (2022)."},{"key":"1073_CR31","unstructured":"Systems, D. The Living Brain Project. (2022)."},{"key":"1073_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104851","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2021.104851","volume":"137","author":"B Shaker","year":"2021","unstructured":"Shaker, B., Ahmad, S., Lee, J., Jung, C. & Na, D. In silico methods and tools for drug discovery. Comput Biol. Med 137, 104851 (2021).","journal-title":"Comput Biol. Med"},{"key":"1073_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-022-01048-4","volume":"14","author":"X Li","year":"2022","unstructured":"Li, X. et al. A dynamic single cell-based framework for digital twins to prioritize disease genes and drug targets. Genome Med. 14, 48 (2022).","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"1073_CR34","unstructured":"Parrott, A., Umbenhauer, B. & Warshaw, L. Digital Twins Bridging the Physical and Digital. Deloiyye Insights. https:\/\/www2.deloitte.com\/us\/en\/insights\/focus\/tech-trends\/2020\/digital-twin-applications-bridging-the-physical-anddigital.html (2020)."},{"key":"1073_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1878","DOI":"10.1093\/bib\/bby061","volume":"20","author":"AS Rifaioglu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Rifaioglu, A. S. et al. Recent applications of deep learning and machine intelligence on in silico drug discovery: methods, tools and databases. Brief. Bioinform 20, 1878\u20131912 (2019).","journal-title":"Brief. Bioinform"},{"key":"1073_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Erol, T., Mendi, A. F. & Do\u011fan, D. Digital Transformation Revolution with Digital Twin Technology 2020 4th International Symposium on Multidisciplinary Studies and Innovative Technologies (ISMSIT), 1\u20137, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ISMSIT50672.2020.9254288 (Istanbul, Turkey, 2020).","DOI":"10.1109\/ISMSIT50672.2020.9254288"},{"key":"1073_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Park, S., Park, C. H., Choi, D. H., Hong, J. K. & Lee D. Y. Bioprocess digital twins of mammalian cell culture for advanced biomanufacturing. Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng. 33, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.coche.2021.100702 (2021).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coche.2021.100702"},{"key":"1073_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gargalo, C. L. et al. In Digital Twins: Tools and Concepts for Smart Biomanufacturing (eds Christoph H., Ralf P., & Johannes M) 1-34 (Springer International Publishing, 2021).","DOI":"10.1007\/10_2020_142"},{"key":"1073_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90088","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-023-26856-y","volume":"30","author":"D Sharma","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sharma, D., Patel, P. & Shah, M. A comprehensive study on Industry 4.0 in the pharmaceutical industry for sustainable development. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 30, 90088\u201390098 (2023).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"1073_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcct.2018.09.009","volume":"13","author":"DR Obaid","year":"2019","unstructured":"Obaid, D. R., Smith, D., Gilbert, M., Ashraf, S. & Chase, A. Computer simulated \u201cVirtual TAVR\u201d to guide TAVR in the presence of a previous Starr-Edwards mitral prosthesis. J. Cardiovasc. Comput. Tomogr. 13, 38\u201340 (2019).","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Comput. Tomogr."},{"key":"1073_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"722275","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2021.722275","volume":"9","author":"K Aubert","year":"2021","unstructured":"Aubert, K. et al. Development of Digital Twins to Optimize Trauma Surgery and Postoperative Management. A Case Study Focusing on Tibial Plateau Fracture. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 9, 722275 (2021).","journal-title":"Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"1073_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e3600","DOI":"10.1002\/cnm.3600","volume":"38","author":"H Ahmadian","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ahmadian, H. et al. A digital twin for simulating the vertebroplasty procedure and its impact on mechanical stability of vertebra in cancer patients. Int J. Numer. Method. Biomed. Eng. 38, e3600 (2022).","journal-title":"Int J. Numer. Method. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"1073_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e3601","DOI":"10.1002\/cnm.3601","volume":"38","author":"H Ahmadian","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ahmadian, H. et al. Toward an artificial intelligence-assisted framework for reconstructing the digital twin of vertebra and predicting its fracture response. Int J. Numer Method Biomed. Eng. 38, e3601 (2022).","journal-title":"Int J. Numer Method Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"1073_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.12688\/digitaltwin.17478.1","volume":"1","author":"X He","year":"2021","unstructured":"He, X. et al. Towards a shape-performance integrated digital twin for lumbar spine analysis[J]. Digital Twin 1, 8 (2021).","journal-title":"Digital Twin"},{"key":"1073_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1007\/s00264-022-05311-6","volume":"46","author":"P Hernigou","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hernigou, P., Safar, A., Hernigou, J. & Ferre, B. Subtalar axis determined by combining digital twins and artificial intelligence: influence of the orientation of this axis for hindfoot compensation of varus and valgus knees. Int Orthop. 46, 999\u20131007, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00264-022-05311-6 (2022).","journal-title":"Int Orthop."},{"key":"1073_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering10060627","volume":"10","author":"T Sun","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sun, T. et al. The Digital Twin: A Potential Solution for the Personalized Diagnosis and Treatment of Musculoskeletal System Diseases. Bioeng. (Basel) 10, 627, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bioengineering10060627 (2023).","journal-title":"Bioeng. (Basel)"},{"key":"1073_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.2786","volume":"32","author":"M Hay","year":"2014","unstructured":"Hay, M., Thomas, D. W., Craighead, J. L., Economides, C. & Rosenthal, J. Clinical development success rates for investigational drugs. Nat. Biotechnol. 32, 40\u201351 (2014).","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"1073_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/djy221","volume":"111","author":"JM Unger","year":"2019","unstructured":"Unger, J. M., Vaidya, R., Hershman, D. L., Minasian, L. M. & Fleury, M. E. Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Magnitude of Structural, Clinical, and Physician and Patient Barriers to Cancer Clinical Trial Participation. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 111, 245\u2013255 (2019).","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"1073_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"188572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbcan.2021.188572","volume":"1876","author":"L Kolla","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kolla, L., Gruber, F. K., Khalid, O., Hill, C. & Parikh, R. B. The case for AI-driven cancer clinical trials - The efficacy arm in silico. Biochim Biophys. Acta Rev. Cancer 1876, 188572 (2021).","journal-title":"Biochim Biophys. Acta Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"1073_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Le, T., Su, S. & Shahriyari, L. Investigating Optimal Chemotherapy Options for Osteosarcoma Patients through a Mathematical Model. Cells 10 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells10082009 (2021).","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10082009"},{"key":"1073_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e185474","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2018.5474","volume":"1","author":"A Badano","year":"2018","unstructured":"Badano, A. et al. Evaluation of Digital Breast Tomosynthesis as Replacement of Full-Field Digital Mammography Using an In Silico Imaging Trial. JAMA Netw. Open 1, e185474 (2018).","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"1073_CR52","unstructured":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration, C. F. D. A. R. H. Assessing the Credibility of Computational Modeling and Simulation in Medical Device Submissions. Docket Number: FDA-2021-D-0980 (2021)."},{"key":"1073_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.2217\/cer-2018-0032","volume":"7","author":"J Davies","year":"2018","unstructured":"Davies, J. et al. Comparative effectiveness from a single-arm trial and real-world data: alectinib versus ceritinib. J. Comp. Eff. Res 7, 855\u2013865 (2018).","journal-title":"J. Comp. Eff. Res"},{"key":"1073_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-19-2580","volume":"26","author":"S Wedam","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wedam, S. et al. FDA Approval Summary: Palbociclib for Male Patients with Metastatic Breast Cancer. Clin. Cancer Res 26, 1208\u20131212 (2020).","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res"},{"key":"1073_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.2147\/CLEP.S242097","volume":"12","author":"K Thorlund","year":"2020","unstructured":"Thorlund, K., Dron, L., Park, J. J. H. & Mills, E. J. Synthetic and External Controls in Clinical Trials - A Primer for Researchers. Clin. Epidemiol. 12, 457\u2013467 (2020).","journal-title":"Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"1073_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1158\/2326-6074.TUMIMM18-A17","volume":"8","author":"KS Vanderman","year":"2020","unstructured":"Vanderman, K. S. Andrew; Chang, Steven. Abstract A17: Predictions of comparative clinical outcomes for checkpoint inhibitor combo therapies and mechanistic targets in first-line NSCLC. Cancer Immunol. Res. 8, 2\u20135 (2020).","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Res."},{"key":"1073_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Katsoulakis, E., Duffy, J. E., Hintze, B., Spector, N. L. & Kelley, M. J. Comparison of Annotation Services for Next-Generation Sequencing in a Large-Scale Precision Oncology Program. JCO Precis. Oncol. 4 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1200\/PO.19.00118 (2020).","DOI":"10.1200\/PO.19.00118"},{"key":"1073_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1002\/humu.22080","volume":"33","author":"PN Robinson","year":"2012","unstructured":"Robinson, P. N. Deep phenotyping for precision medicine. Hum. Mutat. 33, 777\u2013780 (2012).","journal-title":"Hum. Mutat."},{"key":"1073_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2200518","DOI":"10.1200\/PO.22.00518","volume":"7","author":"V Vashistha","year":"2023","unstructured":"Vashistha, V. et al. Molecular-Guided Off-Label Targeted Therapy in a Large-Scale Precision Oncology Program. JCO Precis. Oncol. 7, e2200518 (2023).","journal-title":"JCO Precis. Oncol."},{"key":"1073_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"021304","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0086789","volume":"3","author":"C Wu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wu, C. et al. Integrating mechanism-based modeling with biomedical imaging to build practical digital twins for clinical oncology. Biophys. Rev. (Melville) 3, 021304 (2022).","journal-title":"Biophys. Rev. (Melville)"},{"key":"1073_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e29455","DOI":"10.2196\/29455","volume":"24","author":"E Tardini","year":"2022","unstructured":"Tardini, E. et al. Optimal Treatment Selection in Sequential Systemic and Locoregional Therapy of Oropharyngeal Squamous Carcinomas: Deep Q-Learning With a Patient-Physician Digital Twin Dyad. J. Med .Internet Res. 24, e29455 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Med .Internet Res."},{"key":"1073_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3394","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-22-1329","volume":"82","author":"C Wu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wu, C. et al. MRI-Based Digital Models Forecast Patient-Specific Treatment Responses to Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer. Cancer Res 82, 3394\u20133404 (2022).","journal-title":"Cancer Res"},{"key":"1073_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1002\/psp4.12896","volume":"12","author":"T Qi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Qi, T. & Cao, Y. Virtual clinical trials: A tool for predicting patients who may benefit from treatment beyond progression with pembrolizumab in non-small cell lung cancer. CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharm. 12, 236\u2013249 (2023).","journal-title":"CPT Pharmacomet. Syst. Pharm."},{"key":"1073_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1007784","DOI":"10.3389\/fdgth.2022.1007784","volume":"4","author":"EA Stahlberg","year":"2022","unstructured":"Stahlberg, E. A. et al. Exploring approaches for predictive cancer patient digital twins: Opportunities for collaboration and innovation. Front. Digit. Health 4, 1007784 (2022).","journal-title":"Front. Digit. Health"},{"key":"1073_CR65","unstructured":"Ai, M. B. Mind Bank AI https:\/\/mindbank.ai\/ (2022)."},{"key":"1073_CR66","unstructured":"Twin, I. D. IBM Digital Twin https:\/\/www.ibm.com\/products\/maximo\/predictive-maintenance?cm_sp=ibmdev-_-developer-articles-_-product (2023)."},{"key":"1073_CR67","unstructured":"Babylon Health https:\/\/www.emed.com\/uk (2023)."},{"key":"1073_CR68","unstructured":"DigiTwin. Medical Augmented Intelligence and DigiTwin https:\/\/www.mai.ai\/digitwin\/ (2022)."},{"key":"1073_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.11295","volume":"318","author":"TR Insel","year":"2017","unstructured":"Insel, T. R. Digital Phenotyping: Technology for a New Science of Behavior. JAMA 318, 1215\u20131216 (2017).","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"1073_CR70","unstructured":"Beiwe, B. http:\/\/beiwe.wpengine.com (2023)."},{"key":"1073_CR71","unstructured":"Mindlamp. Mindlamp http:\/\/docs.lamp.digital (2023)."},{"key":"1073_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1007\/s12160-016-9830-8","volume":"52","author":"I Nahum-Shani","year":"2018","unstructured":"Nahum-Shani, I. et al. Just-in-Time Adaptive Interventions (JITAIs) in Mobile Health: Key Components and Design Principles for Ongoing Health Behavior Support. Ann. Behav. Med 52, 446\u2013462 (2018).","journal-title":"Ann. Behav. Med"},{"key":"1073_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-019-0657-3","volume":"11","author":"DR Gawel","year":"2019","unstructured":"Gawel, D. R. et al. A validated single-cell-based strategy to identify diagnostic and therapeutic targets in complex diseases. Genome Med. 11, 47 (2019).","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"1073_CR74","unstructured":"Quarterly, E. M. S. A. T. Personalized medicine. The simulated patient https:\/\/www.empa.ch\/web\/s604\/eq71-digital-twin (2023)."},{"key":"1073_CR75","unstructured":"Human Digital Twin, O. R. C. Human Digital Twin, OnePlanet Research Center. (accessed 12\/27\/2022)."},{"key":"1073_CR76","unstructured":"Digipredict. Digipredict consortium https:\/\/www.digipredict.eu\/outcomes\/ (2022)."},{"key":"1073_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s41747-020-00150-9","volume":"4","author":"L Marti-Bonmati","year":"2020","unstructured":"Marti-Bonmati, L. et al. PRIMAGE project: predictive in silico multiscale analytics to support childhood cancer personalised evaluation empowered by imaging biomarkers. Eur. Radio. Exp. 4, 22 (2020).","journal-title":"Eur. Radio. Exp."},{"key":"1073_CR78","unstructured":"Consortium, D. T. H. Digital Twin 4 Health Consortium http:\/\/dt4h.org\/ (2023)."},{"key":"1073_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bspc.2019.04.032","volume":"ume 52","author":"L Antonelli","year":"2019","unstructured":"Antonelli, L., Guarracino, M. R., Maddalena, L. & Sangiovanni, M. Indhupriya Subramanian, Srikant Verma, Shiva Kumar, Abhay Jere, Krishanpal Anamika, \u2018Integrating imaging and omics data: A review. Biomed. Signal Process. Control ume 52, 264\u2013280 (2019).","journal-title":"Biomed. Signal Process. Control"},{"key":"1073_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Watson, E. R., Taherian Fard, A. & Mar, J.C. \u2018Computational Methods for Single-Cell Imaging and Omics Data Integration\u2019, Front. Mol. Biosci. 8, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmolb.2021.768106 (2021).","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2021.768106"},{"key":"1073_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2018.00031","volume":"9","author":"K Bruynseels","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bruynseels, K., Santoni de Sio, F. & van den Hoven, J. Digital Twins in Health Care: Ethical Implications of an Emerging Engineering Paradigm. Front. Genet. 9, 31 (2018).","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"1073_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ferdousi R., Laamarti F., Hossain M. A., Yang C. & El Saddik A. Digital twins for well-being: an overview. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12688\/digitaltwin.17475.2 (2022).","DOI":"10.12688\/digitaltwin.17475.2"},{"key":"1073_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.5492\/wjccm.v10.i4.112","volume":"10","author":"J Dang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Dang, J. et al. Predictive modeling in neurocritical care using causal artificial intelligence. World J. Crit. Care Med 10, 112\u2013119 (2021).","journal-title":"World J. Crit. Care Med"},{"key":"1073_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Popa, E. O., van Hilten, M., Oosterkamp, E. & Bogaardt, M. J. The use of digital twins in healthcare: socio-ethical benefits and socio-ethical risks. Life Sci. Soc. Policy 17, 6 (2021).","DOI":"10.1186\/s40504-021-00113-x"},{"key":"1073_CR85","unstructured":"The Cleveland Clinic. Randomized Controlled Trial of Digital Twin Precision Treatment: A Novel Whole Body Digital Twin Enabled Precision Treatment for Type 2 Diabetes (TPT), https:\/\/clinicaltrials.gov\/ct2\/show\/NCT05181449 (2023)."}],"container-title":["npj Digital Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-024-01073-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-024-01073-0","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-024-01073-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,22]],"date-time":"2024-03-22T17:05:29Z","timestamp":1711127129000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-024-01073-0"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,22]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1073"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41746-024-01073-0","relation":{},"ISSN":["2398-6352"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2398-6352","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,22]]},"assertion":[{"value":"22 August 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"7 March 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"22 March 2024","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"77"}}