{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]],"date-time":"2026-02-09T00:57:26Z","timestamp":1770598646678,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,27]],"date-time":"2025-02-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740614400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,27]],"date-time":"2025-02-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740614400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["npj Digit. Med."],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>Partnerships between public and private organizations in digital health can promote more accessible, affordable, and high-quality care, but they also raise ethical and governance challenges. We searched PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science, identifying 46 studies examining ethical aspects of digital health public-private partnerships (PPPs). Three key themes emerged: data privacy and consent, ensuring public benefit and access, and good governance and demonstrating trustworthiness. We provide recommendations for each theme. To foster responsible innovation, we conclude that early and contextual operationalisation of ethics guidelines in PPPs is necessary to balance respect for fundamental values with the pursuit of impactful innovation. If PPPs become more successful as a result, this contributes to reducing the research waste of failed collaborations. Further research should clarify the scope of PPPs and definition of \u2018public benefit\u2019, and we call for critical study on the \u2018economization\u2019 of digital health promoted by public and private sector organizations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-025-01515-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]],"date-time":"2025-02-28T12:41:31Z","timestamp":1740746491000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["A scoping review of ethical aspects of public-private partnerships in digital health"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Marieke A. R.","family":"Bak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Daan","family":"Horbach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Alena","family":"Buyx","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Stuart","family":"McLennan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"1515_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2016.00461","volume":"7","author":"O Yildirim","year":"2016","unstructured":"Yildirim, O., Gottwald, M., Sch\u00fcler, P. & Michel, M. C. Opportunities and challenges for drug development: public\u2013private partnerships, adaptive designs and big data. Front. Pharmacol. 7, 461 (2016).","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"1515_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-018-1499-2","volume":"16","author":"A Schuhmacher","year":"2018","unstructured":"Schuhmacher, A., Gassmann, O., McCracken, N. & Hinder, M. Open innovation and external sources of innovation. An opportunity to fuel the R&D pipeline and enhance decision making? J. Transl. Med. 16, 1\u201314 (2018).","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"1515_CR3","unstructured":"World Bank Institute. Public\u2013Private Partnerships \u2013 Reference Guide Version 1.0 (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development\/International Development Association or The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2012)."},{"key":"1515_CR4","unstructured":"European Commission. European Partnerships in Horizon Europe. Accessed through: https:\/\/research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu\/funding\/funding-opportunities\/funding-programmes-and-open-calls\/horizon-europe\/european-partnerships-horizon-europe_en (2022)."},{"key":"1515_CR5","unstructured":"Health Holland. Flyer Publiek Private Partnership (PPP) \u2018Gezondheid: ertoe doen en meedoen\u2019 [Flyer Public Private Partnership (PPP) \u2018Health: to matter and to participate\u2019] (2020)."},{"key":"1515_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-018-1401-2","volume":"16","author":"PJ Silva","year":"2018","unstructured":"Silva, P. J., Schaibley, V. M. & Ramos, K. S. Academic medical centers as innovation ecosystems to address population\u2013omics challenges in precision medicine. J. Transl. Med. 16, 1\u201312 (2018).","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"1515_CR7","unstructured":"NHS. A guide to effective NHS data partnerships. https:\/\/transform.england.nhs.uk\/key-tools-and-info\/centre-improving-data-collaboration\/guide-to-effective-nhs-data-partnerships\/ (2023)."},{"key":"1515_CR8","unstructured":"OECD. Strategic public\/private partnerships in science, technology and innovation. OECD Science, Technology and Innovation Outlook 2016. https:\/\/www.oecd-ilibrary.org\/docserver\/sti_in_outlook-2016-10-en.pdf?expires=1724241481&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=55D88C1AF84AC30F53E0A10242242D18 (2016)."},{"key":"1515_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12910-016-0153-x","volume":"17","author":"M Aitken","year":"2016","unstructured":"Aitken, M. et al. Public responses to the sharing and linkage of health data for research purposes: A systematic review and thematic synthesis of qualitative studies. BMC Med. Ethics 17, 73 (2016).","journal-title":"BMC Med. Ethics"},{"key":"1515_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12910-021-00576-9","volume":"22","author":"MAR Bak","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bak, M. A. R., Veeken, R., Blom, M. T., Tan, H. L. & Willems, D. L. Health data research on sudden cardiac arrest: perspectives of survivors and their next-of-kin. BMC Med. Ethics 22, 1\u201315 (2021).","journal-title":"BMC Med. Ethics"},{"key":"1515_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1093\/medlaw\/fws040","volume":"21","author":"B Prainsack","year":"2013","unstructured":"Prainsack, B. & Buyx, A. A solidarity-based approach to the governance of research biobanks. Med. Law Rev. 21, 71\u201391 (2013).","journal-title":"Med. Law Rev."},{"key":"1515_CR12","unstructured":"Zuboff, S. The age of surveillance capitalism: The fight for a human future at the new frontier of power (Profile Books, London, 2019)."},{"key":"1515_CR13","first-page":"1","volume":"6","author":"A Campolo","year":"2020","unstructured":"Campolo, A. & Crawford, K. Enchanted determinism: Power without responsibility in artificial intelligence. Engag. Sci. Technol. Soc. 6, 1\u201319 (2020).","journal-title":"Engag. Sci. Technol. Soc."},{"key":"1515_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moynihan, R. et al. Pathways to independence: Towards producing and using trustworthy evidence. BMJ 367, I6576 (2019).","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.l6576"},{"key":"1515_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-003-0017-x","volume":"9","author":"NF Olivieri","year":"2003","unstructured":"Olivieri, N. F. Patients\u2019 health or company profits? The commercialization of academic research. Sci. Eng. Ethics 9, 29\u201341 (2003).","journal-title":"Sci. Eng. Ethics"},{"key":"1515_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1823","DOI":"10.1007\/s10961-020-09827-0","volume":"45","author":"K Marr","year":"2020","unstructured":"Marr, K. & Phan, P. The valorization of non-patent intellectual property in academic medical centers. J. Technol. Transf. 45, 1823\u20131841 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Technol. Transf."},{"key":"1515_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1089\/omi.2017.0156","volume":"21","author":"A Adjekum","year":"2017","unstructured":"Adjekum, A., Ienca, M. & Vayena, E. What is trust? Ethics and risk governance in precision medicine and predictive analytics. Omics 21, 704\u2013710 (2017).","journal-title":"Omics"},{"key":"1515_CR18","unstructured":"Mazzucato, M. The Entrepreneurial State: Debunking public vs. private sector myths (Penguin, London, 2011)."},{"key":"1515_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crawford, K. The atlas of AI: Power, politics, and the planetary costs of artificial intelligence (Yale University Press, New Haven, 2021).","DOI":"10.12987\/9780300252392"},{"key":"1515_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1111\/dewb.12208","volume":"18","author":"I de Lecuona","year":"2018","unstructured":"de Lecuona, I. & Villalobos-Quesada, M. European perspectives on big data applied to health: The case of biobanks and human databases. Dev. World Bioeth. 18, 291\u2013298 (2018).","journal-title":"Dev. World Bioeth."},{"key":"1515_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1007\/s41649-019-00095-1","volume":"11","author":"W Lipworth","year":"2019","unstructured":"Lipworth, W. Real-world data to generate evidence about healthcare interventions: The application of an ethics framework for big data in health and research. Asian Bioeth. Rev. 11, 289\u2013298 (2019).","journal-title":"Asian Bioeth. Rev."},{"key":"1515_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.2217\/pme-2016-0057","volume":"13","author":"T Sharon","year":"2016","unstructured":"Sharon, T. The Googlization of health research: from disruptive innovation to disruptive ethics. Pers. Med. 13, 563\u2013574 (2016).","journal-title":"Pers. Med."},{"key":"1515_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-020-09547-x","volume":"23","author":"T Sharon","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sharon, T. Blind-sided by privacy? Digital contact tracing, the Apple\/Google API and big tech\u2019s newfound role as global health policy makers. Ethics Inf. Technol. 23, 45\u201357 (2020).","journal-title":"Ethics Inf. Technol."},{"key":"1515_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951716688490","volume":"4","author":"P Vezyridis","year":"2017","unstructured":"Vezyridis, P. & Timmons, S. Understanding the care.data conundrum: New information flows for economic growth. Big Data Soc. 4, 1\u201312 (2017).","journal-title":"Big Data Soc."},{"key":"1515_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205395172110187","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517211018783","volume":"8","author":"L Marelli","year":"2021","unstructured":"Marelli, L., Testa, G. & Van Hoyweghen, I. Big Tech platforms in health research: Re-purposing big data governance in light of the General Data Protection Regulation\u2019s research exemption. Big Data Soc. 8, 20539517211018783 (2021).","journal-title":"Big Data Soc."},{"key":"1515_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epidem.2022.100652","volume":"41","author":"A Ferretti","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ferretti, A. & Vayena, E. In the shadow of privacy: Overlooked ethical concerns in COVID-19 digital epidemiology. Epidemics 41, 100652 (2022).","journal-title":"Epidemics"},{"key":"1515_CR27","unstructured":"Rantanen, M. M. & Heimo, O. I. Citizens\u2019 information for sale? Secondary use of information in Finland. ORBIT J. 1\u201316 (2018)."},{"key":"1515_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1177\/0024363920922690","volume":"87","author":"J Baric-Parker","year":"2020","unstructured":"Baric-Parker, J. & Anderson, E. E. Patient data-sharing for AI: Ethical challenges, catholic solutions. Linacre Q 87, 471\u2013481 (2020).","journal-title":"Linacre Q"},{"key":"1515_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205395172211089","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517221108988","volume":"9","author":"A Ballantyne","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ballantyne, A. et al. Sharing precision medicine data with private industry: Outcomes of a citizens\u2019 jury in Singapore. Big Data Soc. 9, 20539517221108988 (2022).","journal-title":"Big Data Soc."},{"key":"1515_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmedinf.2021.104623","volume":"156","author":"N Shah","year":"2021","unstructured":"Shah, N. et al. Governing health data across changing contexts: A focus group study of citizen\u2019s views in England, Iceland, and Sweden. Int. J. Med. Inform. 156, 104623 (2021).","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Inform."},{"key":"1515_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laurie, G. T. Cross-sectoral big data: The application of an ethics framework for big data in health and research. Asian Bioeth. Rev. 11, 327\u2013339 (2019).","DOI":"10.1007\/s41649-019-00093-3"},{"key":"1515_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205395172093392","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951720933924","volume":"7","author":"S Cheung","year":"2020","unstructured":"Cheung, S. Disambiguating the benefits and risks from public health data in the digital economy. Big Data Soc. 7, 2053951720933924 (2020).","journal-title":"Big Data Soc."},{"key":"1515_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E95","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.210455","volume":"194","author":"S Spithoff","year":"2022","unstructured":"Spithoff, S., Stockdale, J., Rowe, R., McPhail, B. & Persaud, N. The commercialization of patient data in Canada: Ethics, privacy and policy. CMAJ 194, E95\u2013E97 (2022).","journal-title":"CMAJ"},{"key":"1515_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1136\/medethics-2014-102374","volume":"41","author":"P Carter","year":"2015","unstructured":"Carter, P., Laurie, G. T. & Dixon-Woods, M. The social licence for research: Why care.data ran into trouble. J. Med. Ethics 41, 404\u2013409 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Med. Ethics"},{"key":"1515_CR35","unstructured":"Martin, P. & Hollin, G. A new model of innovation in biomedicine? November 1\u201334 http:\/\/nuffieldbioethics.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/A-New-Model-of-Innovation_web.pdf (2014)."},{"key":"1515_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/s11019-015-9661-6","volume":"19","author":"S Sterckx","year":"2016","unstructured":"Sterckx, S., Rakic, V., Cockbain, J. & Borry, P. You hoped we would sleep walk into accepting the collection of our data\u201d: controversies surrounding the UK care.data scheme and their wider relevance for biomedical research. Med. Health Care Philos. 19, 177\u2013190 (2016).","journal-title":"Med. Health Care Philos."},{"key":"1515_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sterckx, S., Dheensa, S. & Cockbain, J. Presuming the promotion of the common good by large-scale health research: the cases of care.data 2.0 and the 100,000 Genomes Project in the UK. In Personalised Medicine, Individual Choice and the Common Good (eds Sterckx, S., Dheensa, S. & Cockbain, J.) 155-182 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2018).","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108590600.008"},{"key":"1515_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1007\/s41649-019-00100-7","volume":"11","author":"A Ballantyne","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ballantyne, A. & Stewart, C. Big data and public-private partnerships in healthcare and research: the application of an ethics framework for big data in health and research. Asian Bioeth. Rev. 11, 315\u2013326 (2019).","journal-title":"Asian Bioeth. Rev."},{"key":"1515_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1007\/s12553-017-0179-1","volume":"7","author":"J Powles","year":"2017","unstructured":"Powles, J. & Hodson, H. Google DeepMind and healthcare in an age of algorithms. Health Technol. 7, 351\u2013367 (2017).","journal-title":"Health Technol."},{"key":"1515_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/s12553-018-0226-6","volume":"8","author":"J Powles","year":"2018","unstructured":"Powles, J. & Hodson, H. Response to DeepMind. Health Technol. 8, 15\u201329 (2018).","journal-title":"Health Technol."},{"key":"1515_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Schneider, G. Health Data Pools: Case-Studies and Involved Interests. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-95427-7_3 (2022).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-95427-7_3"},{"key":"1515_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1080\/01972243.2018.1542648","volume":"35","author":"JS Winter","year":"2019","unstructured":"Winter, J. S. & Davidson, E. Big data governance of personal health information and challenges to contextual integrity. Inf. Soc. 35, 36\u201351 (2019).","journal-title":"Inf. Soc."},{"key":"1515_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u00c1rnason, E. & Andersen, B. deCODE and Iceland: A critique. eLS 1\u201316 (February 2013).","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470015902.a0005180.pub2"},{"key":"1515_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Tupasela, A. Introduction: Turning Populations into Assets. In Populations as Brands. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-78578-9 (2021).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-78578-9"},{"key":"1515_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Winickoff, D. A bold experiment: Iceland\u2019s genomic venture. In Ethics, Law and Governance of Biobanking (ed. Mascalzoni, D.) 157-178 (Springer, 2015).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-9573-9_13"},{"key":"1515_CR46","first-page":"345","volume":"136","author":"K Snell","year":"2021","unstructured":"Snell, K., Tarkkala, H. & Tupasela, A. A solidarity paradox \u2013 welfare state data in global health data economy. Health 136, 345\u2013932 (2021).","journal-title":"Health"},{"key":"1515_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1007\/s11673-017-9810-0","volume":"14","author":"S Holm","year":"2017","unstructured":"Holm, S. & Ploug, T. Big data and health research\u2014the governance challenges in a mixed data economy. J. Bioeth. Inq. 14, 515\u2013525 (2017).","journal-title":"J. Bioeth. Inq."},{"key":"1515_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1017\/S0963180114000589","volume":"24","author":"B Kaplan","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kaplan, B. Selling health data: de-identification, privacy, and speech. Camb. Q. Healthc. Ethics 24, 256\u2013271 (2015).","journal-title":"Camb. Q. Healthc. Ethics"},{"key":"1515_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Landers, C., Ormond, K. E., Blasimme, A., Brall, C. & Vayena, E. Talking Ethics Early in Health Data Public Private Partnerships. J. Bus. Ethics 190, 649\u2013659 (2023).","DOI":"10.1007\/s10551-023-05425-w"},{"key":"1515_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/s12687-017-0328-2","volume":"9","author":"C Piciocchi","year":"2018","unstructured":"Piciocchi, C. et al. Legal issues in governing genetic biobanks: the Italian framework as a case study for the implications for citizen\u2019s health through public-private initiatives. J. Community Genet. 9, 177\u2013190 (2018).","journal-title":"J. Community Genet."},{"key":"1515_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Winkler, E. C. et al. Patient data for commercial companies? An ethical framework for sharing patients\u2019 data with for-profit companies for research. J. Med. Ethics 1\u20138 (2023).","DOI":"10.1136\/jme-2022-108781"},{"key":"1515_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1080\/20479700.2017.1371367","volume":"11","author":"ER Witjas-Paalberends","year":"2018","unstructured":"Witjas-Paalberends, E. R. et al. Challenges and best practices for big data-driven healthcare innovations conducted by profit\u2013non-profit partnerships\u2013a quantitative prioritization. Int. J. Healthc. Manag. 11, 171\u2013181 (2018).","journal-title":"Int. J. Healthc. Manag."},{"key":"1515_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e10200","DOI":"10.1002\/lrh2.10200","volume":"3","author":"MP Tully","year":"2019","unstructured":"Tully, M. P., Hassan, L., Oswald, M. & Ainsworth, J. Commercial use of health data\u2014A public \u201ctrial\u201d by citizens\u2019 jury. Learn. Health Syst. 3, e10200 (2019).","journal-title":"Learn. Health Syst."},{"key":"1515_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1057\/s41599-021-00911-w","volume":"8","author":"K Gr\u00f6n","year":"2021","unstructured":"Gr\u00f6n, K. Common good in the era of data-intensive healthcare. Humanit. Soc. Sci. Commun. 8, 1\u201310 (2021).","journal-title":"Humanit. Soc. Sci. Commun."},{"key":"1515_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205395171881903","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951718819032","volume":"5","author":"T Sharon","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sharon, T. When digital health meets digital capitalism, how many common goods are at stake? Big Data Soc. 5, 2053951718819032 (2018).","journal-title":"Big Data Soc."},{"key":"1515_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1111\/hex.13268","volume":"24","author":"J Street","year":"2021","unstructured":"Street, J. et al. Sharing administrative health data with private industry: A report on two citizens\u2019 juries. Health Expect. 24, 1337\u20131348 (2021).","journal-title":"Health Expect."},{"key":"1515_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12910-020-00553-8","volume":"21","author":"R Horn","year":"2020","unstructured":"Horn, R. & Kerasidou, A. Sharing whilst caring: Solidarity and public trust in a data-driven healthcare system. BMC Med. Ethics 21, 1\u20137 (2020).","journal-title":"BMC Med. Ethics"},{"key":"1515_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1093\/jamia\/ocaa260","volume":"28","author":"Cole","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cole et al. Ten principles for data sharing and commercialization. J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc. 28, 646\u2013649 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc."},{"key":"1515_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1080\/17530350.2022.2073557","volume":"15","author":"E Fisher","year":"2022","unstructured":"Fisher, E. & Rosenhek, Z. Engendering assemblages: the constitution of digital health data as an epistemic consumption object. J. Cult. Econ. 15, 599\u2013616 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Cult. Econ."},{"key":"1515_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1545","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-021-00473-4","volume":"34","author":"M Howard","year":"2021","unstructured":"Howard, M. Wearables, the marketplace and efficiency in healthcare: How will I know that you\u2019re thinking of me? Philos. Technol. 34, 1545\u20131568 (2021).","journal-title":"Philos. Technol."},{"key":"1515_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1080\/09505431.2021.1999403","volume":"31","author":"M Lanzing","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lanzing, M., Lievevrouw, E. & Siffels, L. It Takes Two to Techno-Tango: An Analysis of a Close Embrace Between Google\/Apple and the EU in Fighting the Pandemic Through Contact Tracing Apps. Sci. Cult. 31, 136\u2013148 (2022).","journal-title":"Sci. Cult."},{"key":"1515_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Graham, M. Data for sale: trust, confidence and sharing health data with commercial companies. J. Med. Ethics 49, 515\u2013522 (2023).","DOI":"10.1136\/medethics-2021-107464"},{"key":"1515_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2019.11365","volume":"322","author":"IG Cohen","year":"2019","unstructured":"Cohen, I. G. & Mello, M. M. Big data, big tech, and protecting patient privacy. JAMA 322, 1141\u20131142 (2019).","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"1515_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2072","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1915298","volume":"382","author":"K Spector-Bagdady","year":"2020","unstructured":"Spector-Bagdady, K., Hutchinson, R., Kaleba, E. O. B. & Kheterpal, S. Sharing health data and biospecimens with industry-a principle-driven, practical approach. N. Engl. J. Med. 382, 2072\u20132075 (2020).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"1515_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1017\/S0963180115000614","volume":"25","author":"B Kaplan","year":"2016","unstructured":"Kaplan, B. How should health data be used?: Privacy, secondary use, and big data sales. Camb. Q. Healthc. Ethics 25, 312\u2013329 (2016).","journal-title":"Camb. Q. Healthc. Ethics"},{"key":"1515_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2010.197","volume":"5","author":"F Wickson","year":"2010","unstructured":"Wickson, F., Delgado, A. & Kj\u00f8lberg, K. L. Who or what is \u2018the public\u2019? Nat. Nanotechnol. 5, 757\u2013758 (2010).","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"1515_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coeckelbergh,M.Artificial intelligence, the common good, and the democratic deficit in AI governance. AI Ethics 1-7 (2024).","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-024-00492-9"},{"key":"1515_CR68","unstructured":"Kennedy, M. A. Tripartite governance: Enabling successful implementations with vulnerable populations. Nurs. Inform. 225, 158\u2013162 (2016)."},{"key":"1515_CR69","unstructured":"Drayton, J. & Hart, V. Promoting good governance as an anti-corruption tool. (2010) Promoting Good Governance as an Anti-Corruption Tool (researchgate.net)."},{"key":"1515_CR70","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Ethics and governance of artificial intelligence for health: WHO guidance: executive summary. (World Health Organization, 2021)."},{"key":"1515_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-024-01105-9","volume":"7","author":"C Landers","year":"2024","unstructured":"Landers, C., Blasimme, A. & Vayena, E. Sync fast and solve things\u2014best practices for responsible digital health. npj Digit. Med. 7, 113 (2024).","journal-title":"npj Digit. Med."},{"key":"1515_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hallonsten, O. Economization. In Empty Innovation: Causes and Consequences of Society\u2019s Obsession with Entrepreneurship and Growth (Springer Int. Publ., 2023).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-31479-7"},{"key":"1515_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12910-022-00746-3","volume":"23","author":"S McLennan","year":"2022","unstructured":"McLennan, S. et al. Embedded ethics: A proposal for integrating ethics into the development of medical AI. BMC Med. Ethics 23, 6 (2022).","journal-title":"BMC Med. Ethics"},{"key":"1515_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wagner, B. Ethics as an escape from regulation. From \u201cEthics Washing\u201d to Ethics Shopping? In Being Profiled: Cogitas Ergo Sum (eds Bayamlio\u011flu, E., Baraliuc, I., Janssens, L. & Hildebrandt, M.) 84-88 (Amsterdam Univ. Press, Amsterdam, 2018).","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctvhrd092.18"},{"key":"1515_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2648.2007.04569.x","volume":"62","author":"S Elo","year":"2008","unstructured":"Elo, S. & Kyng\u00e4s, H. The qualitative content analysis process. J. Adv. Nurs. 62, 107\u2013115 (2008).","journal-title":"J. Adv. Nurs."},{"key":"1515_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850","volume":"169","author":"AC Tricco","year":"2018","unstructured":"Tricco, A. C. et al. PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): checklist and explanation. Ann. Intern. Med. 169, 467\u2013473 (2018).","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"1515_CR77","unstructured":"Van Tulder, R. & Pfisterer, S. Creating Partnering Space. In Social Partnerships and Responsible Business: A Research Handbook 105 (2013)."}],"container-title":["npj Digital Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-025-01515-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-025-01515-3","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-025-01515-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]],"date-time":"2025-02-28T12:41:41Z","timestamp":1740746501000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-025-01515-3"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,27]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1515"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41746-025-01515-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["2398-6352"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2398-6352","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,27]]},"assertion":[{"value":"17 September 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 February 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"27 February 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"129"}}