{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T18:30:25Z","timestamp":1776191425064,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]],"date-time":"2025-06-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749600000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]],"date-time":"2025-06-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749600000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000062","name":"U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIDDK1R01 DK110186-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIDDK1R01 DK110186-01"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000062","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2T32HL09804911"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2T32HL09804911"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIDDK1R01 DK110186-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIDDK1R01 DK110186-01"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Stanford Diabetes Research Center (P30DK116074)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Stanford Diabetes Research Center (P30DK116074)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["npj Digit. Med."],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-025-01728-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]],"date-time":"2025-06-11T12:42:43Z","timestamp":1749645763000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["High-resolution lifestyle profiling and metabolic subphenotypes of type 2 diabetes"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Heyjun","family":"Park","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0155-7412","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed A.","family":"Metwally","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Alireza","family":"Delfarah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Yue","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3335-1950","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dalia","family":"Perelman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Caleb","family":"Mayer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Curtis","family":"McGinity","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Majid","family":"Rodgar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Alessandra","family":"Celli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Tracey","family":"McLaughlin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6928-5310","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Mignot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0784-7987","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Snyder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"1728_CR1","unstructured":"International Diabetes Federation. IDF Diabetes Atlas 11th Edition (2025)."},{"key":"1728_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2279","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)60283-9","volume":"379","author":"AG Tab\u00e1k","year":"2012","unstructured":"Tab\u00e1k, A. G., Herder, C., Rathmann, W., Brunner, E. J. & Kivim\u00e4ki, M. Prediabetes: a high-risk state for diabetes development. Lancet 379, 2279\u20132290 (2012).","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"1728_CR3","first-page":"162","volume":"34","author":"Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group.","year":"2002","unstructured":"Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Reduction of the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N. Engl. J. Med. 34, 162\u2013163 (2002).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"1728_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1038\/s42255-023-00799-7","volume":"5","author":"GE Legaard","year":"2023","unstructured":"Legaard, G. E. et al. Effects of different doses of exercise and diet-induced weight loss on beta-cell function in type 2 diabetes (DOSE-EX): a randomized clinical trial. Nat. Metab. 5, 880\u2013895 (2023).","journal-title":"Nat. Metab."},{"key":"1728_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Metwally, A. A. et al. Prediction of metabolic subphenotypes of type 2 diabetes via continuous glucose monitoring and machine learning. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 1\u201318 (2024).","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-024-01311-6"},{"key":"1728_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0414-6","volume":"25","author":"SM Sch\u00fcssler-Fiorenza Rose","year":"2019","unstructured":"Sch\u00fcssler-Fiorenza Rose, S. M. et al. A longitudinal big data approach for precision health. Nat. Med. 25, 792\u2013804 (2019).","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"1728_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.2001402","volume":"15","author":"X Li","year":"2017","unstructured":"Li, X. et al. Digital health: tracking physiomes and activity using wearable biosensors reveals useful health-related information. PLoS Biol. 15, e2001402 (2017).","journal-title":"PLoS Biol."},{"key":"1728_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00016.2012","volume":"93","author":"K Eckel-Mahan","year":"2013","unstructured":"Eckel-Mahan, K. & Sassone-Corsi, P. Metabolism and the circadian clock converge. Physiol. Rev. 93, 107\u2013135 (2013).","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"1728_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2015-1007","volume":"36","author":"Z Gerhart-Hines","year":"2015","unstructured":"Gerhart-Hines, Z. & Lazar, M. A. Circadian metabolism in the light of evolution. Endocr. Rev. 36, 289\u2013304 (2015).","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"1728_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1113\/JP276488","volume":"597","author":"L Dollet","year":"2019","unstructured":"Dollet, L. & Zierath, J. R. Interplay between diet, exercise and the molecular circadian clock in orchestrating metabolic adaptations of adipose tissue. J. Physiol. 597, 1439\u20131450 (2019).","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"1728_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1210\/endrev\/bnab027","volume":"43","author":"ENC Manoogian","year":"2022","unstructured":"Manoogian, E. N. C., Chow, L. S., Taub, P. R., Laferr\u00e8re, B. & Panda, S. Time-restricted eating for the prevention and management of metabolic diseases. Endocr. Rev. 43, 405\u2013436 (2022).","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"1728_CR12","first-page":"1","volume":"13","author":"I \u015awiatkiewicz","year":"2021","unstructured":"\u015awiatkiewicz, I., Wo\u017aniak, A. & Taub, P. R. Time-restricted eating and metabolic syndrome: current status and future perspectives. Nutrients 13, 1\u201324 (2021).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1728_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sondrup, N. et al. Effects of sleep manipulation on markers of insulin sensitivity: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Sleep Med. Rev. 62, 101594 (2022).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2022.101594"},{"key":"1728_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00404344","volume":"37","author":"D Pei","year":"1994","unstructured":"Pei, D., Jones, C. N. O., Bhargava, R., Chen, Y. D. I. & Reaven, G. M. Evaluation of octreotide to assess insulin-mediated glucose disposal by the insulin suppression test. Diabetologia 37, 843\u2013845 (1994).","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"1728_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-2607(96)01755-5","volume":"50","author":"R Hovorka","year":"1996","unstructured":"Hovorka, R., Soons, P. A. & Young, M. A. ISEC: a program to calculate insulin secretion. Comput. Methods Prog. Biomed. 50, 253\u2013264 (1996).","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Prog. Biomed."},{"key":"1728_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.23.2.171","volume":"23","author":"H Yeni-Komshian","year":"2000","unstructured":"Yeni-Komshian, H., Carantoni, M., Abbasi, F. & Reaven, G. M. Relationship between several surrogate estimates of insulin resistance and quantification of insulin-mediated glucose disposal in 490 healthy nondiabetic volunteers. Diab. Care 23, 171\u2013175 (2000).","journal-title":"Diab. Care"},{"key":"1728_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1038\/s41387-024-00347-6","volume":"14","author":"DA D\u00edaz-Rizzolo","year":"2024","unstructured":"D\u00edaz-Rizzolo, D. A. et al. Late eating is associated with poor glucose tolerance, independent of body weight, fat mass, energy intake and diet composition in prediabetes or early onset type 2 diabetes. Nutr. Diabetes 14, 90 (2024).","journal-title":"Nutr. Diabetes"},{"key":"1728_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eabg9910","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abg9910","volume":"7","author":"SL Chellappa","year":"2021","unstructured":"Chellappa, S. L. et al. Daytime eating prevents internal circadian misalignment and glucose intolerance in night work. Sci. Adv. 7, eabg9910 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"1728_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.3109\/07420528.2011.622599","volume":"28","author":"T Wu","year":"2011","unstructured":"Wu, T. et al. Differential roles of breakfast and supper in rats of a daily three-meal schedule upon circadian regulation and physiology. Chronobiol. Int. 28, 890\u2013903 (2011).","journal-title":"Chronobiol. Int."},{"key":"1728_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1740-3391-10-4","volume":"10","author":"Y Fuse","year":"2012","unstructured":"Fuse, Y. et al. Differential roles of breakfast only (one meal per day) and a bigger breakfast with a small dinner (two meals per day) in mice fed a high-fat diet with regard to induced obesity and lipid metabolism. J. Circadian Rhythms 10, 1 (2012).","journal-title":"J. Circadian Rhythms"},{"key":"1728_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henry, C. J., Kaur, B. & Quek, R. Y. C. Chrononutrition in the management of diabetes. Nutr. Diabetes 10, 6 (2020).","DOI":"10.1038\/s41387-020-0109-6"},{"key":"1728_CR22","first-page":"44","volume":"1","author":"S Reutrakul","year":"2018","unstructured":"Reutrakul, S., Punjabi, N. M. & Van Cauter, E. Impact of sleep and circadian disturbances on glucose metabolism and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 1, 44 (2018).","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"1728_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1860","DOI":"10.2337\/db13-1546","volume":"63","author":"R Leproult","year":"2014","unstructured":"Leproult, R., Holmb\u00e4ck, U. & Van Cauter, E. Circadian misalignment augments markers of insulin resistance and inflammation, independently of sleep loss. Diabetes 63, 1860\u20131869 (2014).","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"1728_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2018.02.010","volume":"84","author":"S Reutrakul","year":"2018","unstructured":"Reutrakul, S. & Van Cauter, E. Sleep influences on obesity, insulin resistance, and risk of type 2 diabetes. Metabolism 84, 56\u201366 (2018).","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"1728_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2016.02.001","volume":"31","author":"SWH Lee","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lee, S. W. H., Ng, K. Y. & Chin, W. K. The impact of sleep amount and sleep quality on glycemic control in type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep. Med. Rev. 31, 91\u2013101 (2017).","journal-title":"Sleep. Med. Rev."},{"key":"1728_CR26","first-page":"1408","volume":"46","author":"T Huang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Huang, T. et al. Association between accelerometer-measured irregular sleep duration and type 2 diabetes risk: a prospective cohort study in the UK biobank. Diab. Care 46, 1408\u20131416 (2023).","journal-title":"Diab. Care"},{"key":"1728_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2017.11.017","volume":"84","author":"E Poggiogalle","year":"2018","unstructured":"Poggiogalle, E., Jamshed, H. & Peterson, C. M. Circadian regulation of glucose, lipid, and energy metabolism in humans. Metabolism 84, 11\u201327 (2018).","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"1728_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E41","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00298.2015","volume":"310","author":"M Gil-Lozano","year":"2015","unstructured":"Gil-Lozano, M. et al. Short-term sleep deprivation with nocturnal light exposure alters time-dependent glucagon-like peptide-1 and insulin secretion in male volunteers. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 310, E41\u2013E50 (2015).","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"1728_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296814566233","volume":"9","author":"AM Gomez","year":"2015","unstructured":"Gomez, A. M. et al. Effects of performing morning versus afternoon exercise on glycemic control and hypoglycemia frequency in type 1 diabetes patients on sensor-augmented insulin pump therapy. J. Diab. Sci. Technol. 9, 619\u2013624 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Diab. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"1728_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-018-4767-z","volume":"62","author":"M Savikj","year":"2019","unstructured":"Savikj, M. et al. Afternoon exercise is more efficacious than morning exercise at improving blood glucose levels in individuals with type 2 diabetes: a randomised crossover trial. Diabetologia 62, 233\u2013237 (2019).","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"1728_CR31","first-page":"789","volume":"180","author":"R Williams","year":"2021","unstructured":"Williams, R. et al. Impact of lifestyle moderate-to-vigorous physical activity timing on glycemic control in sedentary adults with overweight\/obesity and metabolic impairments. JAMA Intern. Med. 180, 789\u2013797 (2021).","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"1728_CR32","first-page":"123","volume":"45","author":"J Smith","year":"2023","unstructured":"Smith, J. et al. Association of timing of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity with changes in glycemic control over 4 years in adults with type 2 diabetes from the look AHEAD trial. Diab. Care 45, 123\u2013130 (2023).","journal-title":"Diab. Care"},{"key":"1728_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000002139","volume":"52","author":"SYM Teo","year":"2020","unstructured":"Teo, S. Y. M., Kanaley, J. A., Guelfi, K. J., Marston, K. J. & Fairchild, T. J. The effect of exercise timing on glycemic control: a randomized clinical trial. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 52, 323\u2013334 (2020).","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"1728_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S38","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.22811","volume":"28","author":"R Mancilla","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mancilla, R., Krook, A., Schrauwen, P. & Hesselink, M. K. C. Diurnal regulation of peripheral glucose metabolism: potential effects of exercise timing. Obesity 28, S38\u2013S45 (2020).","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"1728_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13051708","volume":"13","author":"MME Remchak","year":"2021","unstructured":"Remchak, M. M. E. et al. Considerations for maximizing the exercise \u201cdrug\u201d to combat insulin resistance: role of nutrition, sleep, and alcohol. Nutrients 13, 1\u201319 (2021).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1728_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4202","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15194202","volume":"15","author":"E Di Murro","year":"2023","unstructured":"Di Murro, E. et al. Physical activity and type 2 diabetes: In search of a personalized approach to improving \u03b2-cell function. Nutrients 15, 4202 (2023).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1728_CR37","volume":"10","author":"L Martinez","year":"2020","unstructured":"Martinez, L. et al. Genetic predisposition, modifiable lifestyles, and their joint effects on human lifespan: evidence from multiple cohort studies. Nat. Commun. 10, 1234 (2020).","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"1728_CR38","first-page":"456","volume":"11","author":"M Johnson","year":"2022","unstructured":"Johnson, M. et al. Effects of genetic risk on incident type 2 diabetes and glycemia: the T2D-gene lifestyle intervention trial. Lancet Diab. Endocrinol. 11, 456\u2013465 (2022).","journal-title":"Lancet Diab. Endocrinol."},{"key":"1728_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.2337\/diab.30.5.387","volume":"30","author":"MS Greenfield","year":"1981","unstructured":"Greenfield, M. S., Doberne, L., Kraemer, F., Tobey, T. & Reaven, G. Assessment of insulin resistance with the insulin suppression test and the euglycemic clamp. Diabetes 30, 387\u2013392 (1981).","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"1728_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2151","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI106433","volume":"49","author":"SW Shen","year":"1970","unstructured":"Shen, S. W., Reaven, G. M. & Farquhar, J. W. Comparison of impedance to insulin-mediated glucose uptake in normal subjects and in subjects with latent diabetes. J. Clin. Invest. 49, 2151\u20132160 (1970).","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest."},{"key":"1728_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-010-1966-7","volume":"54","author":"J Vangipurapu","year":"2011","unstructured":"Vangipurapu, J. et al. A novel surrogate index for hepatic insulin resistance. Diabetologia 54, 540\u2013543 (2011).","journal-title":"Diabetologia"}],"container-title":["npj Digital Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-025-01728-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-025-01728-6","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-025-01728-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]],"date-time":"2025-06-11T12:42:47Z","timestamp":1749645767000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-025-01728-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1728"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41746-025-01728-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["2398-6352"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2398-6352","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"8 March 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"13 May 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 June 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"A.A.M. is currently an employee of Google, and A.D. is an employee of Calico Life Sciences. D.P. and T.M. are members of the scientific advisory board of January AI. M.P.S. is a co-founder and a member of the scientific advisory board of Personalis, Qbio, January AI, SensOmics, Protos, Mirvie, RTHM, and Iollo. He is on the scientific advisory board of Danaher, Neuvivo, and Jupiter. The remaining authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"352"}}