{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T22:43:44Z","timestamp":1783637024823,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,17]],"date-time":"2025-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752710400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,17]],"date-time":"2025-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752710400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"NHS England"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["npj Digit. Med."],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-025-01805-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,17]],"date-time":"2025-07-17T17:43:52Z","timestamp":1752774232000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["A mixed methods formative evaluation of the United Kingdom National Health Service Artificial Intelligence Lab"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Kathrin","family":"Cresswell","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robin","family":"Williams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sheena","family":"Dungey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stuart","family":"Anderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miguel O.","family":"Bernabeu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hajar","family":"Mozaffar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiao","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Varun","family":"Sai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Bea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sally","family":"Eason","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"1805_CR1","unstructured":"UK Government. Health Secretary announces \u00a3250 million investment in artificial intelligence. https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/news\/health-secretary-announces-250-million-investment-in-artificial-intelligence (2024)."},{"key":"1805_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"020303","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.08.020303","volume":"8","author":"T Panch","year":"2018","unstructured":"Panch, T., Szolovits, P. & Atun, R. Artificial intelligence, machine learning and health systems. J. Glob. Health 8, 020303 (2018).","journal-title":"J. Glob. Health"},{"key":"1805_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e383","DOI":"10.1016\/S2589-7500(21)00005-4","volume":"3","author":"A Sheikh","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sheikh, A. et al. Health information technology and digital innovation for national learning health and care systems. Lancet Digit. Health 3, e383\u2013e396 (2021).","journal-title":"Lancet Digit. Health"},{"key":"1805_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/40238","volume":"24","author":"M Sharma","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sharma, M. et al. Artificial intelligence applications in health care practice: scoping review. J. Med. Internet Res. 24, e40238 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"1805_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eap.2020.07.008","volume":"67","author":"S Fatima","year":"2020","unstructured":"Fatima, S., Desouza, K. C. & Dawson, G. S. National strategic artificial intelligence plans: a multi-dimensional analysis. Econ. Anal. Policy 67, 178\u2013194 (2020).","journal-title":"Econ. Anal. Policy"},{"key":"1805_CR6","unstructured":"US National Science Foundation. National Artificial Intelligence Research Resource Pilot. https:\/\/www.nsf.gov\/focus-areas\/artificial-intelligence\/nairr (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR7","unstructured":"Smart Nation Singapore. National Artificial Intelligence Strategy. https:\/\/www.smartnation.gov.sg\/files\/publications\/national-ai-strategy.pdf (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR8","unstructured":"Agency for Digital Government. The Danish National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence. https:\/\/en.digst.dk\/strategy\/the-danish-national-strategy-for-artificial-intelligence\/ (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR9","unstructured":"Ira Alanko. The AuroraAI Programme. https:\/\/www.europarl.europa.eu\/cmsdata\/240174\/AIDA%20workshop_28052021_Alanko.pdf (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR10","unstructured":"Ministry of Health and Welfare. Healthcare 4.0 Era for Healthy Korea. https:\/\/www.mohw.go.kr\/board.es?mid=a20401000000&bid=0032&tag=&act=view&list_no=375996 (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare12050562","volume":"12","author":"K Palaniappan","year":"2024","unstructured":"Palaniappan, K., Lin, E. Y. & Vogel, S. Global regulatory frameworks for the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in the healthcare services sector. Healthcare 12, 562 (2024).","journal-title":"Healthcare"},{"key":"1805_CR12","unstructured":"Council for Social Principles of Human-centric AI. Social Principles of Human-Centric AI. https:\/\/www.cas.go.jp\/jp\/seisaku\/jinkouchinou\/pdf\/humancentricai.pdf (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR13","unstructured":"Australian Alliance for Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare. A National Policy Roadmap for Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare. https:\/\/www.mq.edu.au\/__data\/assets\/pdf_file\/0005\/1281758\/AAAiH_NationalAgendaRoadmap_20231122.pdf (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR14","unstructured":"Secretary of State or Digitalization and Artificial Intelligence. National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (Spain). https:\/\/portal.mineco.gob.es\/RecursosArticulo\/mineco\/ministerio\/ficheros\/National-Strategy-on-AI.pdf (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR15","unstructured":"Catalan Data Protection Authority. Automated Decision-making in Catalonia. https:\/\/apdcat.gencat.cat\/web\/.content\/03-documentacio\/intelligencia_artificial\/documents\/Informe-IA-Angles-Report-Final.pdf (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR16","unstructured":"Norwegian Ministry of Local Government and Modernisation. National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (Norway). https:\/\/www.regjeringen.no\/contentassets\/1febbbb2c4fd4b7d92c67ddd353b6ae8\/en-gb\/pdfs\/ki-strategi_en.pdf (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR17","unstructured":"National Program for Artificial Intelligence. UAE National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence. https:\/\/ai.gov.ae\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/UAE-National-Strategy-for-Artificial-Intelligence-2031.pdf (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR18","unstructured":"Government of Canada. The Artificial Intelligence and Data Act (AIDA). https:\/\/ised-isde.canada.ca\/site\/innovation-better-canada\/en\/artificial-intelligence-and-data-act-aida-companion-document (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR19","unstructured":"Ministerie van Economische Zaken en Klimaat. Strategic Action Plan for AI. https:\/\/oecd.ai\/en\/wonk\/documents\/netherlands-strategic-action-plan-for-ai-2019 (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR20","unstructured":"Die Bundesregierung. Strategie K\u00fcnstliche Intelligenz der Bundesregierung. https:\/\/www.bmwk.de\/Redaktion\/DE\/Publikationen\/Technologie\/strategie-kuenstliche-intelligenz-der-bundesregierung.html (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpubeco.2011.05.005","volume":"95","author":"BA Jacob","year":"2011","unstructured":"Jacob, B. A. & Lefgren, L. The impact of research grant funding on scientific productivity. J. Public Econ. 95, 1168\u20131177 (2011).","journal-title":"J. Public Econ."},{"key":"1805_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e758","DOI":"10.1016\/S2589-7500(21)00145-X","volume":"3","author":"K Cresswell","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cresswell, K., Sheikh, A. & Williams, R. Accelerating health information technology capabilities across England\u2019s National Health Service. Lancet Digit. Health 3, e758\u2013e759 (2021).","journal-title":"Lancet Digit. Health"},{"key":"1805_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmedinf.2020.104281","volume":"144","author":"O Fennelly","year":"2020","unstructured":"Fennelly, O. et al. Successfully implementing a national electronic health record: a rapid umbrella review. Int. J. Med. Inform. 144, 104281 (2020).","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Inform."},{"key":"1805_CR24","unstructured":"NHS England. About the NHS AI Lab. https:\/\/transform.england.nhs.uk\/ai-lab\/about-the-nhs-ai-lab\/ (2024)."},{"key":"1805_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1007\/s43441-021-00304-w","volume":"55","author":"A Arora","year":"2021","unstructured":"Arora, A. et al. Innovation pathways in the NHS: an introductory review. Ther. Innov. Regul. Sci. 55, 1045\u20131058 (2021).","journal-title":"Ther. Innov. Regul. Sci."},{"key":"1805_CR26","unstructured":"The Guardian. Boris Johnson pledges \u00a3250m for NHS artificial intelligence. https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/society\/2019\/aug\/08\/boris-johnson-pledges-250m-for-nhs-artificial-intelligence (2024)."},{"key":"1805_CR27","unstructured":"NHS England. NHS AI Lab. https:\/\/transform.england.nhs.uk\/ai-lab\/ (2024)."},{"key":"1805_CR28","unstructured":"NHS England. AI in Health and Care Award winners. https:\/\/transform.england.nhs.uk\/ai-lab\/ai-lab-programmes\/ai-health-and-care-award\/ai-health-and-care-award-winners\/ (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR29","unstructured":"HM Treasury. The Green Book. https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/the-green-book-appraisal-and-evaluation-in-central-government\/the-green-book-2020#a6-discounting (2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2022.121650","volume":"179","author":"K Eilers","year":"2022","unstructured":"Eilers, K., Peters, C. & Leimeister, J. M. Why the agile mindset matters. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change 179, 121650 (2022).","journal-title":"Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change"},{"key":"1805_CR31","unstructured":"National Audit Office. Digital transformation in government. https:\/\/www.nao.org.uk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/02\/digital-transformation-in-government.pdf (2024)."},{"key":"1805_CR32","unstructured":"University of Edinburgh. Final report: Global Digital Exemplar (GDE) Programme. https:\/\/www.ed.ac.uk\/sites\/default\/files\/atoms\/files\/final_report_gde_evaluation_programme.pdf (2023)."},{"key":"1805_CR33","unstructured":"Cresswell, K. et al. The Long and Winding Road: NHS Care Records Service Evaluation. http:\/\/www.cphs.mvm.ed.ac.uk\/grantdocs\/526%20%20Final%20report%20v31st%20Mar%20FINAL.pdf (2011)."},{"key":"1805_CR34","unstructured":"Checkland, K. et al. National evaluation of the Vanguard new care models programme: Interim report: understanding the national support programme. https:\/\/www.research.manchester.ac.uk\/portal\/files\/103375904\/Interim_report_of_the_NCM_external_evaluation_final_v1.pdf (2019)."},{"key":"1805_CR35","unstructured":"Hayes, G. Independent Review of NHS and Social Care IT. https:\/\/ntouk.files.wordpress.com\/2020\/11\/nhs-and-social-care-it-review-2009.pdf (2009)."},{"key":"1805_CR36","unstructured":"Wachter, R. Making IT work: Report on Health Information Technology in England. https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/government\/uploads\/system\/uploads\/attachment_data\/file\/550866\/Wachter_Review_Accessible.pdf (2016)."},{"key":"1805_CR37","unstructured":"National Audit Office. Digital transformation in the NHS. https:\/\/www.nao.org.uk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/05\/Digital-transformation-in-the-NHS.pdf (2020)."},{"key":"1805_CR38","unstructured":"National Audit Office. Evaluating government spending. https:\/\/www.nao.org.uk\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/12\/Evaluating-government-spending.pdf (2021)."},{"key":"1805_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-024-11112-x","volume":"24","author":"H Alami","year":"2024","unstructured":"Alami, H. et al. Understanding AI integration via NASSS framework. BMC Health Serv. Res. 24, 701 (2024).","journal-title":"BMC Health Serv. Res."},{"key":"1805_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-018-0307-0","volume":"25","author":"J He","year":"2019","unstructured":"He, J. et al. Practical implementation of AI in medicine. Nat. Med. 25, 30\u201336 (2019).","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"1805_CR41","first-page":"191","volume":"2020","author":"M Ghassemi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ghassemi, M. et al. Machine learning in health: challenges and opportunities. AMIA Summits Transl. Sci. Proc. 2020, 191 (2020).","journal-title":"AMIA Summits Transl. Sci. Proc."},{"key":"1805_CR42","volume":"21","author":"K Yeo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yeo, K., Li, Z. & Lin, W. Barriers and facilitators to AI adoption. BMC Med. Inform. Decis. Mak. 21, 54 (2021).","journal-title":"BMC Med. Inform. Decis. Mak."},{"key":"1805_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205395171667967","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951716679679","volume":"3","author":"BD Mittelstadt","year":"2016","unstructured":"Mittelstadt, B. D. et al. Ethics of algorithms. Big Data Soc. 3, 2053951716679679 (2016).","journal-title":"Big Data Soc."},{"key":"1805_CR44","first-page":"100039","volume":"2","author":"F Tagscherer","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tagscherer, F. & Carbon, C. C. Leadership for successful digitalization. Sustain. Technol. Entrep. 2, 100039 (2023).","journal-title":"Sustain. Technol. Entrep."},{"key":"1805_CR45","first-page":"69","volume":"10","author":"H Bevan","year":"2024","unstructured":"Bevan, H. et al. Spreading and scaling innovation and improvement: understanding why the differences matter. J Innov. 10, 69\u201373 (2024).","journal-title":"J Innov."},{"key":"1805_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0255220","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0255220","volume":"16","author":"S Hinder","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hinder, S. et al. Promoting inter-organisational knowledge sharing. PLoS ONE 16, e0255220 (2021).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"1805_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1080\/1369118X.2013.830635","volume":"17","author":"M Johnson","year":"2014","unstructured":"Johnson, M. et al. The managed prosumer in information infrastructures. Inf. Commun. Soc. 17, 795\u2013813 (2014).","journal-title":"Inf. Commun. Soc."},{"key":"1805_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3610","DOI":"10.1007\/s11606-023-08405-y","volume":"38","author":"K Cresswell","year":"2023","unstructured":"Cresswell, K. et al. Evaluation of healthcare digitalisation. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 38, 3610\u20133615 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Gen. Intern. Med."},{"key":"1805_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.1080\/01900692.2018.1498103","volume":"42","author":"BW Wirtz","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wirtz, B. W. et al. AI in the public sector. Int. J. Public Adm. 42, 596\u2013615 (2019).","journal-title":"Int. J. Public Adm."},{"key":"1805_CR50","first-page":"20170357","volume":"376","author":"SJ Mikhaylov","year":"2018","unstructured":"Mikhaylov, S. J. et al. AI in the public sector: collaboration opportunities. Philos. Trans. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 376, 20170357 (2018).","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"1805_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bounfour, A. Platforms and Artificial Intelligence (Springer, 2022).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-90192-9"},{"key":"1805_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sheikh, A. et al. Implementation and adoption of nationwide electronic health records in secondary care in England: final qualitative results from prospective national evaluation in \u201cearly adopter\u201d hospitals. BMJ 343, d6054 (2011).","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.d6054"},{"key":"1805_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lau, T. Size matters when adopting and scaling AI. In Banking on (Artificial) Intelligence (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2025).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-81647-5_4"},{"key":"1805_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Howell, S. T. Government intervention in innovation. Annu. Rev. Financ. Econ. 16, (2024).","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-financial-082123-105722"},{"key":"1805_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lar\u00e9do, P., K\u00f6hler, C. & Rammer, C. The impact of fiscal incentives for R&D. In Handbook of Innovation Policy Impact 18\u201353 (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2016).","DOI":"10.4337\/9781784711856.00009"},{"key":"1805_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2831814","DOI":"10.17061\/phrp2831814","volume":"28","author":"DM Campbell","year":"2018","unstructured":"Campbell, D. M., Stickney, B., Milat, A. & Thackway, S. Improving health systems through innovation in population health and health services research. Public Health Res. Pract. 28, 2831814 (2018).","journal-title":"Public Health Res. Pract."},{"key":"1805_CR57","unstructured":"Zabala, F. J. Grow Your Business with AI: A First Principles Approach for Scaling Artificial Intelligence in the Enterprise. (A press LP, Berkeley, CA, 2023)."},{"key":"1805_CR58","unstructured":"Health Foundation. Priorities for an AI Health Care Strategy (Health Foundation, 2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1093\/jamia\/ocae034","volume":"31","author":"K Cresswell","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cresswell, K. et al. Concerted adoption for digital transformation. J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc. 31, 1211\u20131215 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc."},{"key":"1805_CR60","unstructured":"Mazzucato, M. Mission Economy (Penguin UK, 2021)."},{"key":"1805_CR61","unstructured":"HM Treasury. The Magenta Book (HM Treasury, 2025)."},{"key":"1805_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1111\/isj.12557","volume":"35","author":"H Mozaffar","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mozaffar, H. & Candi, M. Extending the process frontier of digital transformation: A flow-oriented perspective. Inf. Syst. J. 35, 720\u2013760 (2024).","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. J"},{"key":"1805_CR63","unstructured":"McKinsey & Company. The State of AI in 2022 (McKinsey & Company, 2024)."},{"key":"1805_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e15068","DOI":"10.2196\/15068","volume":"22","author":"K Cresswell","year":"2020","unstructured":"Cresswell, K., Williams, R. & Sheikh, A. Developing and applying a formative evaluation framework for health information technology implementations: qualitative investigation. J. Med. Internet Res. 22, e15068 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."}],"container-title":["npj Digital Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-025-01805-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-025-01805-w","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-025-01805-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,7]],"date-time":"2025-09-07T13:12:01Z","timestamp":1757250721000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41746-025-01805-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,17]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1805"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41746-025-01805-w","relation":{},"ISSN":["2398-6352"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2398-6352","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,17]]},"assertion":[{"value":"15 March 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 June 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"17 July 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"M.B., R.W. and K.C. were commissioned as the TSET for one of the Phase 4 AI Award projects. The other authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"448"}}