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Virtual brain twins provide a modeling method for personalized diagnosis and treatment. They integrate patient-specific brain topography with structural connectivity from anatomical neuroimaging such as magnetic resonance imaging, and dynamic activity from functional recordings such as electroencephalography (EEG) and stereo-EEG (SEEG). Seizures show rich spatial and temporal features in functional recordings, which can be exploited to estimate the EZN. Stimulation-induced seizures can provide important and complementary information. Here we consider invasive SEEG stimulation and non-invasive temporal interference stimulation as a complementary approach. This paper offers a high-resolution virtual brain twin framework for EZN diagnosis based on stimulation-induced seizures. It provides an important methodological and conceptual basis to make the transition from invasive to non-invasive diagnosis and treatment of drug-resistant focal epilepsy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s43588-025-00841-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,5]],"date-time":"2025-08-05T09:03:17Z","timestamp":1754384597000},"page":"754-768","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Virtual brain twins for stimulation in epilepsy"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4060-8649","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Huifang E.","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Borana","family":"Dollomaja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0371-8400","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul","family":"Triebkorn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Gian Marco","family":"Duma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Adam","family":"Williamson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Julia","family":"Makhalova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Jean-Didier","family":"Lemarechal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Fabrice","family":"Bartolomei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8251-8860","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Viktor","family":"Jirsa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"841_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.13791","volume":"58","author":"F Bartolomei","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bartolomei, F. et al. 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