{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T05:13:27Z","timestamp":1791263607933,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":97,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2011,11,16]],"date-time":"2011-11-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1321401600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Heredity"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2012,1]]},"DOI":"10.1038\/hdy.2011.106","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,11,16]],"date-time":"2011-11-16T10:28:14Z","timestamp":1321439294000},"page":"50-58","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":94,"title":["The origin and evolution of vertebrate sex chromosomes and dosage compensation"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"108","author":[{"given":"A M","family":"Livernois","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J A M","family":"Graves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"P D","family":"Waters","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,11,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R122","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2010-11-12-r122","volume":"11","author":"S Al Nadaf","year":"2010","unstructured":"Al Nadaf S, Waters PD, Koina E, Deakin JE, Jordan KS, Graves JAM (2010). Activity map of the tammar X chromosome shows that marsupial S inactivation is incomplete and escape is stochastic. Genome Biol 11: R122.","journal-title":"Genome Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1899","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.a.32387","volume":"146A","author":"JC Barber","year":"2008","unstructured":"Barber JC (2008). Terminal 3p deletions: phenotypic variability, chromosomal non-penetrance, or gene modification? Am J Med Genet A 146A: 1899\u20131901.","journal-title":"Am J Med Genet A"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1038\/296763a0","volume":"296","author":"PR Baverstock","year":"1982","unstructured":"Baverstock PR, Adams M, Polkinghorne RW, Gelder M (1982). A sex-linked enzyme in birds\u2014Z-chromosome conservation but no dosage compensation. Nature 296: 763\u2013766.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1101\/sqb.2010.75.052","volume":"75","author":"DB Beck","year":"2011","unstructured":"Beck DB, Bonasio R, Kaneko S, Li G, Margueron R, Oda H et al. (2011). Chromatin in the nuclear landscape. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 75: 11\u201322.","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00326454","volume":"26","author":"NO Bianchi","year":"1969","unstructured":"Bianchi NO, Becak W, De Bianchi MS, Becak ML, Rabello MN (1969). Chromosome replication in four species of snakes. Chromosoma 26: 188\u2013200.","journal-title":"Chromosoma"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05634","volume":"446","author":"OR Bininda-Emonds","year":"2007","unstructured":"Bininda-Emonds OR, Cardillo M, Jones KE, MacPhee RD, Beck RM, Grenyer R et al. (2007). The delayed rise of present-day mammals. Nature 446: 507\u2013512.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1042\/BJ20091617","volume":"426","author":"JA Birchler","year":"2010","unstructured":"Birchler JA (2010). Reflections on studies of gene expression in aneuploids. Biochem J 426: 119\u2013123.","journal-title":"Biochem J"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5803","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2010-04-273771","volume":"116","author":"J Boultwood","year":"2010","unstructured":"Boultwood J, Pellagatti A, McKenzie AN, Wainscoat JS (2010). Advances in the 5q\u2212 syndrome. Blood 116: 5803\u20135811.","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14440","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.96.25.14440","volume":"96","author":"L Carrel","year":"1999","unstructured":"Carrel L, Cottle AA, Goglin KC, Willard HF (1999). A first-generation X-inactivation profile of the human X chromosome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96: 14440\u201314444.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1030","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1998119","volume":"251","author":"B Charlesworth","year":"1991","unstructured":"Charlesworth B (1991). The evolution of sex chromosomes. Science 251: 1030\u20131033.","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1159\/000071577","volume":"99","author":"J Chaumeil","year":"2002","unstructured":"Chaumeil J, Okamoto I, Guggiari M, Heard E (2002). Integrated kinetics of X chromosome inactivation in differentiating embryonic stem cells. Cytogenet Genome Res 99: 75\u201384.","journal-title":"Cytogenet Genome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e19040","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0019040","volume":"6","author":"J Chaumeil","year":"2011","unstructured":"Chaumeil J, Waters PD, Koina E, Gilbert C, Robinson TJ, Graves JAM (2011). Evolution from XIST-independent to XIST-controlled X-chromosome inactivation: epigenetic modifications in distantly related mammals. PLoS One 6: e19040.","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceb.2009.04.012","volume":"21","author":"J Chow","year":"2009","unstructured":"Chow J, Heard E (2009). X inactivation and the complexities of silencing a sex chromosome. Curr Opin Cell Biol 21: 359\u2013366.","journal-title":"Curr Opin Cell Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1006\/sedb.1993.1014","volume":"4","author":"D Cooper","year":"1993","unstructured":"Cooper D, Johnston PG, Graves JAM (1993). X-inactivation in marsupials and monotremes. Semin Cell Dev Biol 4: 117\u2013128.","journal-title":"Semin Cell Dev Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1000140","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1000140","volume":"4","author":"JE Deakin","year":"2008","unstructured":"Deakin JE, Hore TA, Koina E, Marshall Graves JAM (2008). The status of dosage compensation in the multiple X chromosomes of the platypus. PLoS Genet 4: e1000140.","journal-title":"PLoS Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1007\/s10577-009-9079-1","volume":"17","author":"CL Delgado","year":"2009","unstructured":"Delgado CL, Waters PD, Gilbert C, Robinson TJ, Graves JAM (2009). Physical mapping of the elephant X chromosome: conservation of gene order over 105 million years. Chromosome Res 17: 917\u2013926.","journal-title":"Chromosome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibs.2006.07.007","volume":"31","author":"X Deng","year":"2006","unstructured":"Deng X, Meller VH (2006). Non-coding RNA in fly dosage compensation. Trends Biochem Sci 31: 526\u2013532.","journal-title":"Trends Biochem Sci"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1000751","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1000751","volume":"5","author":"X Deng","year":"2009","unstructured":"Deng X, Nguyen DK, Hansen RS, Van Dyke DL, Gartler SM, Disteche CM (2009). Dosage regulation of the active X chromosome in human triploid cells. PLoS Genet 5: e1000751.","journal-title":"PLoS Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R175","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2007-8-8-r175","volume":"8","author":"JC Dohm","year":"2007","unstructured":"Dohm JC, Tsend-Ayush E, Reinhardt R, Grutzner F, Himmelbauer H (2007). Disruption and pseudoautosomal localization of the major histocompatibility complex in monotremes. Genome Biol 8: R175.","journal-title":"Genome Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7007-5-40","volume":"5","author":"H Ellegren","year":"2007","unstructured":"Ellegren H, Hultin-Rosenberg L, Brunstrom B, Dencker L, Kultima K, Scholz B (2007). Faced with inequality: chickens do not have a general dosage compensation of sex-linked genes. BMC Biol 5: 40.","journal-title":"BMC Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ceb.2008.04.007","volume":"20","author":"JA Erwin","year":"2009","unstructured":"Erwin JA, Lee JT (2009). New twists in X-chromosome inactivation. Curr Opin Cell Biol 20: 349\u2013355.","journal-title":"Curr Opin Cell Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1007\/s10577-007-1161-y","volume":"15","author":"D Grafodatskaya","year":"2007","unstructured":"Grafodatskaya D, Rens W, Wallis MC, Trifonov V, O\u2019Brien PC, Clarke O et al. (2007). Search for the sex-determining switch in monotremes: mapping WT1, SF1, LHX1, LHX2, FGF9, WNT4, RSPO1 and GATA4 in platypus. Chromosome Res 15: 777\u2013785.","journal-title":"Chromosome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4827(67)90407-7","volume":"46","author":"JAM Graves","year":"1967","unstructured":"Graves JAM (1967). DNA synthesis in chromosomes of cultured leucocytes from two marsupial species. Exp Cell Res 46: 37\u201357.","journal-title":"Exp Cell Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1002\/bies.950170407","volume":"17","author":"JAM Graves","year":"1995","unstructured":"Graves JAM (1995). The origin and function of the mammalian Y chromosome and Y-borne genes\u2014an evolving understanding. BioEssays 17: 311\u2013320.","journal-title":"BioEssays"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1159\/000074349","volume":"101","author":"JAM Graves","year":"2003","unstructured":"Graves JAM (2003). Sex and death in birds: a model of dosage compensation that predicts lethality of sex chromosome aneuploids. Cytogenet Genome Res 101: 278\u2013282.","journal-title":"Cytogenet Genome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2006.02.024","volume":"124","author":"JAM Graves","year":"2006","unstructured":"Graves JAM (2006). Sex chromosome specialization and degeneration in mammals. Cell 124: 901\u2013914.","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01570786","volume":"12","author":"JAM Graves","year":"1986","unstructured":"Graves JAM, Gartler SM (1986). Mammalian X chromosome inactivation: testing the hypothesis of transcriptional control. Somat Cell Mol Genet 12: 275\u2013280.","journal-title":"Somat Cell Mol Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1159\/000071585","volume":"99","author":"JAM Graves","year":"2002","unstructured":"Graves JAM, Gecz J, Hameister H (2002). Evolution of the human X\u2014a smart and sexy chromosome that controls speciation and development. Cytogenet Genome Res 99: 141\u2013145.","journal-title":"Cytogenet Genome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2010-11-4-205","volume":"11","author":"JAM Graves","year":"2010","unstructured":"Graves JAM, Peichel CL (2010). Are homologies in vertebrate sex determination due to shared ancestry or to limited options? Genome Biol 11: 205.","journal-title":"Genome Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.1088","volume":"290","author":"JAM Graves","year":"2001","unstructured":"Graves JAM, Shetty S (2001). Sex from W to Z: Evolution of vertebrate sex chromosomes and sex determining genes. J Exp Zool 290: 449\u2013462.","journal-title":"J Exp Zool"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03021","volume":"432","author":"F Gr\u00fctzner","year":"2004","unstructured":"Gr\u00fctzner F, Rens W, Tsend-Ayush E, El-Mogharbel N, O\u2019Brien PC, Jones RC et al. (2004). In the platypus a meiotic chain of ten sex chromosomes shares genes with the bird Z and mammal X chromosomes. Nature 432: 913\u2013917.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/jbiol30","volume":"5","author":"V Gupta","year":"2006","unstructured":"Gupta V, Parisi M, Sturgill D, Nuttall R, Doctolero M, Dudko OK et al. (2006). Global analysis of X-chromosome dosage compensation. J Biol 5: 3.","journal-title":"J Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gde.2005.08.009","volume":"15","author":"E Heard","year":"2005","unstructured":"Heard E (2005). Delving into the diversity of facultative heterochromatin: the epigenetics of the inactive X chromosome. Curr Opin Genet Dev 15: 482\u2013489.","journal-title":"Curr Opin Genet Dev"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1071\/RD09099","volume":"21","author":"KK Ho","year":"2009","unstructured":"Ho KK, Deakin JE, Wright ML, Graves JAM, Grutzner F (2009). Replication asynchrony and differential condensation of X chromosomes in female platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus). Reprod Fertil Dev 21: 952\u2013963.","journal-title":"Reprod Fertil Dev"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D690","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkn828","volume":"37","author":"TJ Hubbard","year":"2009","unstructured":"Hubbard TJ, Aken BL, Ayling S, Ballester B, Beal K, Bragin E et al. (2009). Ensembl 2009. Nucleic Acids Res 37: D690\u2013D697.","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02465","volume":"429","author":"SJ Humphray","year":"2004","unstructured":"Humphray SJ, Oliver K, Hunt AR, Plumb RW, Loveland JE, Howe KL et al. (2004). DNA sequence and analysis of human chromosome 9. Nature 429: 369\u2013374.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/jbiol53","volume":"6","author":"Y Itoh","year":"2007","unstructured":"Itoh Y, Melamed E, Yang X, Kampf K, Wang S, Yehya N et al. (2007). Dosage compensation is less effective in birds than in mammals. J Biol 6: 2.","journal-title":"J Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.102343.109","volume":"20","author":"Y Itoh","year":"2010","unstructured":"Itoh Y, Replogle K, Kim YH, Wade J, Clayton DF, Arnold AP (2010). Sex bias and dosage compensation in the zebra finch versus chicken genomes: general and specialized patterns among birds. Genome Res 20: 512\u2013518.","journal-title":"Genome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6210","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.84.17.6210","volume":"84","author":"DC Kaslow","year":"1987","unstructured":"Kaslow DC, Migeon BR (1987). DNA methylation stabilizes X chromosome inactivation in eutherians but not in marsupials: evidence for multistep maintenance of mammalian X dosage compensation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84: 6210\u20136214.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/s00412-008-0176-2","volume":"118","author":"A Kawai","year":"2009","unstructured":"Kawai A, Ishijima J, Nishida C, Kosaka A, Ota H, Kohno S et al. (2009). The ZW sex chromosomes of Gekko hokouensis (Gekkonidae, Squamata) represent highly conserved homology with those of avian species. Chromosoma 118: 43\u201351.","journal-title":"Chromosoma"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.jhered.a022961","volume":"87","author":"RB King","year":"1996","unstructured":"King RB, Lawson R (1996). Sex-linked inheritance of fumarate hydratase alleles in natricine snakes. J Hered 87: 81\u201383.","journal-title":"J Hered"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E171","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.0020171","volume":"2","author":"A Kohlmaier","year":"2004","unstructured":"Kohlmaier A, Savarese F, Lachner M, Martens J, Jenuwein T, Wutz A (2004). A chromosomal memory triggered by Xist regulates histone methylation in X inactivation. PLoS Biol 2: E171.","journal-title":"PLoS Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tig.2004.09.008","volume":"20","author":"M Kohn","year":"2004","unstructured":"Kohn M, Kehrer-Sawatzki H, Vogel W, Graves JAM, Hameister H (2004). Wide genome comparisons reveal the origins of the human X chromosome. Trends Genet 20: 598\u2013603.","journal-title":"Trends Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1007\/s10577-009-9020-7","volume":"17","author":"E Koina","year":"2009","unstructured":"Koina E, Chaumeil J, Greaves IK, Tremethick DJ, Graves JAM (2009). Specific patterns of histone marks accompany X chromosome inactivation in a maruspial. Chromosome Res 17: 115\u2013126.","journal-title":"Chromosome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1038\/31927","volume":"392","author":"S Kumar","year":"1998","unstructured":"Kumar S, Hedges SB (1998). A molecular timescale for vertebrate evolution. Nature 392: 917\u2013920.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1159\/000069803","volume":"98","author":"A Kuroiwa","year":"2002","unstructured":"Kuroiwa A, Uchikawa M, Kamachi Y, Kondoh H, Nishida-Umehara C, Masabanda J et al. (2002). Chromosome assignment of eight SOX family genes in chicken. Cytogenet Genome Res 98: 189\u2013193.","journal-title":"Cytogenet Genome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.a.33366","volume":"152A","author":"A Lindstrand","year":"2010","unstructured":"Lindstrand A, Malmgren H, Verri A, Benetti E, Eriksson M, Nordgren A et al. (2010). Molecular clinical characterization of patients with overlapping 10p deletions. Am J Med Genet A 152A: 1233\u20131243.","journal-title":"Am J Med Genet A"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.6.2.114","volume":"6","author":"DA Loebel","year":"1996","unstructured":"Loebel DA, Johnston PG (1996). Methylation analysis of a marsupial X-linked CpG island by bisulfite genomic sequencing. Genome Res 6: 114\u2013123.","journal-title":"Genome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1038\/190372a0","volume":"190","author":"MF Lyon","year":"1961","unstructured":"Lyon MF (1961). Gene action in the X-chromosome of the mouse (Mus musculus L). Nature 190: 372\u2013373.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1478","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2009.07.041","volume":"19","author":"SK Mahadevaiah","year":"2009","unstructured":"Mahadevaiah SK, Royo H, VandeBerg JL, McCarrey JR, Mackay S, Turner JM (2009). Key features of the X inactivation process are conserved between marsupials and eutherians. Curr Biol 19: 1478\u20131484.","journal-title":"Curr Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1038\/hdy.2008.116","volume":"102","author":"JE Mank","year":"2009","unstructured":"Mank JE, Ellegren H (2009). All dosage compensation is local: gene-by-gene regulation of sex-biased expression on the chicken Z chromosome. Heredity 102: 312\u2013320.","journal-title":"Heredity"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2133","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1558-5646.2011.01316.x","volume":"65","author":"JE Mank","year":"2011","unstructured":"Mank JE, Hosken DJ, Wedell N (2011). Some inconvenient truths about sex chromosome dosage compensation and the potential role of sexual conflict. Evolution 65: 2133\u20132144.","journal-title":"Evolution"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18190","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0605274103","volume":"103","author":"K Matsubara","year":"2006","unstructured":"Matsubara K, Tarui H, Toriba M, Yamada K, Nishida-Umehara C, Agata K et al. (2006). Evidence for different origin of sex chromosomes in snakes, birds, and mammals and step-wise differentiation of snake sex chromosomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 18190\u201318195.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1071\/BI9870397","volume":"40","author":"LM McKay","year":"1987","unstructured":"McKay LM, Wrigley JM, Graves JAM (1987). Evolution of mammalian X-chromosome inactivation: sex chromatin in monotremes and marsupials. Aust J Biol Sci 40: 397\u2013404.","journal-title":"Aust J Biol Sci"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R202","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2007-8-9-r202","volume":"8","author":"E Melamed","year":"2007","unstructured":"Melamed E, Arnold AP (2007). Regional differences in dosage compensation on the chicken Z chromosome. Genome Biol 8: R202.","journal-title":"Genome Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.1400170303","volume":"17","author":"HJ Muller","year":"1914","unstructured":"Muller HJ (1914). A gene for the fourth chromosome of Drosophila. J Exp Zool 17: 325\u2013336.","journal-title":"J Exp Zool"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1038\/35054550","volume":"409","author":"WJ Murphy","year":"2001","unstructured":"Murphy WJ, Eizirik E, Johnson WE, Zhang YP, Ryder OA, O\u2019Brien SJ (2001). Molecular phylogenetics and the origins of placental mammals. Nature 409: 614\u2013618.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1159\/000071591","volume":"99","author":"I Nanda","year":"2002","unstructured":"Nanda I, Haaf T, Schartl M, Schmid M, Burt DW (2002). Comparative mapping of Z-orthologous genes in vertebrates: implications for the evolution of avian sex chromosomes. Cytogenet Genome Res 99: 178\u2013184.","journal-title":"Cytogenet Genome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1038\/6769","volume":"21","author":"I Nanda","year":"1999","unstructured":"Nanda I, Shan Z, Schartl M, Burt DW, Koehler M, Nothwang H et al. (1999). 300 million years of conserved synteny between chicken Z and human chromosome 9. Nat Genet 21: 258\u2013259.","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1705","volume":"38","author":"DK Nguyen","year":"2006","unstructured":"Nguyen DK, Disteche CM (2006). Dosage compensation of the active X chromosome in mammals. Nat Genet 38: 47\u201353.","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03983","volume":"437","author":"C Nusbaum","year":"2005","unstructured":"Nusbaum C, Zody MC, Borowsky ML, Kamal M, Kodira CD, Taylor TD et al. (2005). DNA sequence and analysis of human chromosome 18. Nature 437: 551\u2013555.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1007\/s10577-010-9152-9","volume":"18","author":"D O\u2019Meally","year":"2010","unstructured":"O\u2019Meally D, Patel HR, Stiglec R, Sarre SD, Georges A, Graves JAM et al. (2010). Non-homologous sex chromosomes of birds and snakes share repetitive sequences. Chromosome Res 18: 787\u2013800.","journal-title":"Chromosome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-88178-7","volume-title":"Sex Chromosomes and Sex-Linked Genes","author":"S Ohno","year":"1967","unstructured":"Ohno S (1967). Sex Chromosomes and Sex-Linked Genes. Springer-Verlag: New York, NY."},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ge.03.120169.002431","volume":"3","author":"S Ohno","year":"1969","unstructured":"Ohno S (1969). Evolution of sex chromosomes in mammals. Annu Rev Genet 3: 495\u2013524.","journal-title":"Annu Rev Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1007\/s10577-009-9057-7","volume":"17","author":"I Okamoto","year":"2009","unstructured":"Okamoto I, Heard E (2009). Lessons from comparative analysis of X-chromosome inactivation in mammals. Chromosome Res 17: 659\u2013669.","journal-title":"Chromosome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09872","volume":"472","author":"I Okamoto","year":"2011","unstructured":"Okamoto I, Patrat C, Thepot D, Peynot N, Fauque P, Daniel N et al. (2011). Eutherian mammals use diverse strategies to initiate X-chromosome inactivation during development. Nature 472: 370\u2013374.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01233530","volume":"19","author":"AA Piper","year":"1993","unstructured":"Piper AA, Bennett AM, Noyce L, Swanton MK, Cooper DW (1993). Isolation of a clone partially encoding hill kangaroo X-linked hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase: sex differences in methylation in the body of the gene. Somat Cell Mol Genet 19: 141\u2013159.","journal-title":"Somat Cell Mol Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1007\/s00412-011-0322-0","volume":"120","author":"M Pokorna","year":"2011","unstructured":"Pokorna M, Giovannotti M, Kratochvil L, Kasai F, Trifonov VA, O\u2019Brien PC et al. (2011). Strong conservation of the bird Z chromosome in reptilian genomes is revealed by comparative painting despite 275 million years divergence. Chromosoma 120: 455\u2013468.","journal-title":"Chromosoma"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmg.2008.09.006","volume":"52","author":"H Puusepp","year":"2009","unstructured":"Puusepp H, Zilina O, Teek R, Mannik K, Parkel S, Kruustuk K et al. (2009). 5.9\u2009Mb microdeletion in chromosome band 17q22\u2013q23.2 associated with tracheo-esophageal fistula and conductive hearing loss. Eur J Med Genet 52: 71\u201374.","journal-title":"Eur J Med Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1135925","volume":"316","author":"AE Quinn","year":"2007","unstructured":"Quinn AE, Georges A, Sarre SD, Guarino F, Ezaz T, Graves JAM (2007). Temperature sex reversal implies sex gene dosage in a reptile. Science 316: 411.","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16257","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0405702101","volume":"101","author":"W Rens","year":"2004","unstructured":"Rens W, Grutzner F, O\u2019Brien PC, Fairclough H, Graves JAM, Ferguson-Smith MA (2004). Resolution and evolution of the duck-billed platypus karyotype with an X1Y1X2Y2X3Y3X4Y4X5Y5 male sex chromosome constitution. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101: 16257\u201316261.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R243","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2007-8-11-r243","volume":"8","author":"W Rens","year":"2007","unstructured":"Rens W, O\u2019Brien PC, Grutzner F, Clarke O, Graphodatskaya D, Tsend-Ayush E et al. (2007). The multiple sex chromosomes of platypus and echidna are not completely identical and several share homology with the avian Z. Genome Biol 8: R243.","journal-title":"Genome Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17657","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0910322107","volume":"107","author":"W Rens","year":"2010","unstructured":"Rens W, Wallduck MS, Lovell FL, Ferguson-Smith MA, Ferguson-Smith AC (2010). Epigenetic modifications on X chromosomes in marsupial and monotreme mammals and implications for evolution of dosage compensation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107: 17657\u201317662.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1093\/genetics\/116.1.161","volume":"116","author":"WR Rice","year":"1987","unstructured":"Rice WR (1987). Genetic hitchhiking and the evolution of reduced genetic activity of the Y sex chromosome. Genetics 116: 161\u2013167.","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1935","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biochi.2011.07.009","volume":"93","author":"A Romito","year":"2011","unstructured":"Romito A, Rougeulle C (2011). Origin and evolution of the long non-coding genes in the X-inactivation center. Biochimie 93: 1935\u20131942.","journal-title":"Biochimie"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03440","volume":"434","author":"MT Ross","year":"2005","unstructured":"Ross MT, Grafham DV, Coffey AJ, Scherer S, McLay K, Muzny D et al. (2005). The DNA sequence of the human X chromosome. Nature 434: 325\u2013337.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1999.0623","volume":"266","author":"GM Saifi","year":"1999","unstructured":"Saifi GM, Chandra HS (1999). An apparent excess of sex- and reproduction-related genes on the human X chromosome. Proc Biol Sci 266: 203\u2013209.","journal-title":"Proc Biol Sci"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmg.2005.10.133","volume":"49","author":"T Schwarzbraun","year":"2006","unstructured":"Schwarzbraun T, Windpassinger C, Ofner L, Vincent JB, Cheung J, Scherer SW et al. (2006). Genomic analysis of five chromosome 7p deletion patients with Greig cephalopolysyndactyly syndrome (GCPS). Eur J Med Genet 49: 338\u2013345.","journal-title":"Eur J Med Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009278914829","volume":"7","author":"S Shetty","year":"1999","unstructured":"Shetty S, Griffin DK, Graves JAM (1999). Comparative painting reveals strong chromosome homology over 80 million years of bird evolution. Chromosome Res 7: 289\u2013295.","journal-title":"Chromosome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1038\/nature01722","volume":"423","author":"H Skaletsky","year":"2003","unstructured":"Skaletsky H, Kuroda-Kawaguchi T, Minx PJ, Cordum HS, Hillier L, Brown LG et al. (2003). The male-specific region of the human Y chromosome is a mosaic of discrete sequence classes. Nature 423: 825\u2013837.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08298","volume":"461","author":"CA Smith","year":"2009","unstructured":"Smith CA, Roeszler KN, Ohnesorg T, Cummins DM, Farlie PG, Doran TJ et al. (2009). The avian Z-linked gene DMRT1 is required for male sex determination in the chicken. Nature 461: 267\u2013271.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR82","first-page":"201","volume-title":"Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determining Genes","author":"MH Thorne","year":"1993","unstructured":"Thorne MH, Sheldon BL (1993). Triploid intersex and chimeric chickens: useful models for studies of avian sex determination. In: Reed KC, Graves JAM (eds). Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determining Genes. Harwood Academic Publishers: Switzerland, pp 201\u2013208."},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.7101908","volume":"18","author":"F Veyrunes","year":"2008","unstructured":"Veyrunes F, Waters PD, Miethke P, Rens W, McMillan D, Alsop AE et al. (2008). Bird-like sex chromosomes of platypus imply recent origin of mammal sex chromosomes. Genome Res 18: 965\u2013973.","journal-title":"Genome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9665","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.94.18.9665","volume":"94","author":"MJ Wakefield","year":"1997","unstructured":"Wakefield MJ, Keohane AM, Turner BM, Graves JAM (1997). Histone underacetylation is an ancient component of mammalian X chromosome inactivation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94: 9665\u20139668.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06936","volume":"453","author":"WC Warren","year":"2008","unstructured":"Warren WC, Hillier LW, Marshall Graves JAM, Birney E, Ponting CP, Grutzner F et al. (2008). Genome analysis of the platypus reveals unique signatures of evolution. Nature 453: 175\u2013183.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1007\/s10577-005-0978-5","volume":"13","author":"PD Waters","year":"2005","unstructured":"Waters PD, Delbridge ML, Deakin JE, El-Mogharbel N, Kirby PJ, Carvalho-Silva DR et al. (2005). Autosomal location of genes from the conserved mammalian X in the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus): implications for mammalian sex chromosome evolution. Chromosome Res 13: 401\u2013410.","journal-title":"Chromosome Res"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1159\/000056872","volume":"92","author":"PD Waters","year":"2001","unstructured":"Waters PD, Duffy B, Frost CJ, Delbridge ML, Graves JAM (2001). The human Y chromosome derives largely from a single autosomal region added to the sex chromosomes 80\u2013130 million years ago. Cytogenet Cell Genet 92: 74\u201379.","journal-title":"Cytogenet Cell Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1071\/RD09250","volume":"21","author":"PD Waters","year":"2009","unstructured":"Waters PD, Marshall Graves JAM (2009). Monotreme sex chromosomes\u2014implications for the evolution of amniote sex chromosomes. Reprod Fertil Dev 21: 943\u2013951.","journal-title":"Reprod Fertil Dev"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcdb.2007.02.007","volume":"18","author":"PD Waters","year":"2007","unstructured":"Waters PD, Wallis MC, Marshall Graves JAM (2007). Mammalian sex\u2014origin and evolution of the Y chromosome and SRY. Semin Cell Dev Biol 18: 389\u2013400.","journal-title":"Semin Cell Dev Biol"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-8628(19970414)69:4<413::AID-AJMG15>3.0.CO;2-Q","volume":"69","author":"D Wieczorek","year":"1997","unstructured":"Wieczorek D, Bolt J, Schwechheimer K, Gillessen-Kaesbach G (1997). A patient with interstitial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 3 (pter--&gt;p21.2::p12--&gt;qter) and a CHARGE-like phenotype. Am J Med Genet 69: 413\u2013417.","journal-title":"Am J Med Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1006\/geno.1996.0323","volume":"35","author":"SA Wilcox","year":"1996","unstructured":"Wilcox SA, Watson JM, Spencer JA, Graves JAM (1996). Comparative mapping identifies the fusion point of an ancient mammalian X-autosomal rearrangement. Genomics 35: 66\u201370.","journal-title":"Genomics"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.1320200211","volume":"20","author":"GN Wilson","year":"1985","unstructured":"Wilson GN, Raj A, Baker D (1985). The phenotypic and cytogenetic spectrum of partial trisomy 9. Am J Med Genet 20: 277\u2013282.","journal-title":"Am J Med Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-genom-082908-150105","volume":"10","author":"MA Wilson","year":"2009","unstructured":"Wilson MA, Makova KD (2009). Genomic analyses of sex chromosome evolution. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 10: 333\u2013354.","journal-title":"Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-12-91","volume":"12","author":"JB Wolf","year":"2011","unstructured":"Wolf JB, Byrk J (2011). General lack of global dosage compensation in ZZ\/ZW systems? Broadening the perspective with RNA-seq. BMC Genomics 12: 91.","journal-title":"BMC Genomics"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.711","volume":"42","author":"Y Xiong","year":"2010","unstructured":"Xiong Y, Chen X, Chen Z, Wang X, Shi S, Zhang J et al. (2010). RNA sequencing shows no dosage compensation of the active X-chromosome. Nat Genet 42: 1043\u20131047.","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/s00412-010-0300-y","volume":"120","author":"IS Zakharova","year":"2011","unstructured":"Zakharova IS, Shevchenko AI, Shilov G, Nesterova TB, VandeBerg JL, Zakian SM (2011). Histone H3 trimethylation at lysine 9 marks the inactive metaphase X chromosome in the marsupial Monodelphis domestica. Chromosoma 120: 177\u2013183.","journal-title":"Chromosoma"},{"key":"BFhdy2011106_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-9525(01)02446-5","volume":"17","author":"U Zechner","year":"2001","unstructured":"Zechner U, Wilda M, Kehrer-Sawatzki H, Vogel W, Fundele R, Hameister H (2001). A high density of X-linked genes for general cognitive ability: a run-away process shaping human evolution? Trends Genet 17: 697\u2013701.","journal-title":"Trends Genet"}],"container-title":["Heredity"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/hdy2011106.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/hdy2011106","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/hdy2011106.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,18]],"date-time":"2023-05-18T17:43:17Z","timestamp":1684431797000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/hdy2011106"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011,11,16]]},"references-count":97,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2012,1]]}},"alternative-id":["BFhdy2011106"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/hdy.2011.106","relation":{},"ISSN":["0018-067X","1365-2540"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0018-067X","type":"print"},{"value":"1365-2540","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2011,11,16]]}}}