{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T02:38:39Z","timestamp":1792809519161,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":145,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,31]],"date-time":"2017-10-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1509408000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/www.springer.com\/tdm"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nat Rev Urol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,1]]},"DOI":"10.1038\/nrurol.2017.167","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,31]],"date-time":"2017-10-31T23:11:21Z","timestamp":1509491481000},"page":"11-24","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":438,"title":["The inflammatory microenvironment and microbiome in prostate cancer development"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Karen S.","family":"Sfanos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Srinivasan","family":"Yegnasubramanian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"William G.","family":"Nelson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angelo M.","family":"De Marzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1158\/2326-6066.CIR-14-0174","volume":"2","author":"JW Simons","year":"2014","unstructured":"Simons, J. W. Prostate cancer immunotherapy: beyond immunity to curability. Cancer Immunol. Res. 2, 1034\u20131043 (2014).","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Res."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccell.2015.03.001","volume":"27","author":"SL Topalian","year":"2015","unstructured":"Topalian, S. L., Drake, C. G. & Pardoll, D. M. Immune checkpoint blockade: a common denominator approach to cancer therapy. Cancer Cell 27, 450\u2013461 (2015).","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc2090","volume":"7","author":"AM De Marzo","year":"2007","unstructured":"De Marzo, A. M. et al. Inflammation in prostate carcinogenesis. Nat. Rev. Cancer 7, 256\u2013269 (2007).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-0348-0837-8_7","volume-title":"Inflammation and Cancer, Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology","author":"KS Sfanos","year":"2014","unstructured":"Sfanos, K. S., Hempel, H. A. & De Marzo, A. M. in Inflammation and Cancer, Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology Vol. 816 (eds Aggarwal, B. B., Sung, B. & Gupta, S. B.) 153\u2013181 (Springer, 2014)."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2559.2011.04033.x","volume":"60","author":"KS Sfanos","year":"2012","unstructured":"Sfanos, K. S. & De Marzo, A. M. Prostate cancer and inflammation: the evidence. Histopathology 60, 199\u2013215 (2012).","journal-title":"Histopathology"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2011.02.013","volume":"144","author":"D Hanahan","year":"2011","unstructured":"Hanahan, D. & Weinberg, R. A. Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell 144, 646\u2013674 (2011).","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR7","first-page":"3","volume":"1","author":"KS Sfanos","year":"2013","unstructured":"Sfanos, K. S., Isaacs, W. B. & De Marzo, A. M. Infections and inflammation in prostate cancer. Am. J. Clin. Exp. Urol. 1, 3\u201311 (2013).","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Exp. Urol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.2217\/fon.10.95","volume":"6","author":"S Sutcliffe","year":"2010","unstructured":"Sutcliffe, S. Sexually transmitted infections and risk of prostate cancer: review of historical and emerging hypotheses. Future Oncol. 6, 1289\u20131311 (2010).","journal-title":"Future Oncol."},{"issue":"Suppl.","key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR9","first-page":"S36","volume":"171","author":"EA Platz","year":"2004","unstructured":"Platz, E. A. & De Marzo, A. M. Epidemiology of inflammation and prostate cancer. J. Urol. 171 (Suppl.), S36\u2013S40 (2004).","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ede.0000101022.38330.7c","volume":"15","author":"RO Roberts","year":"2004","unstructured":"Roberts, R. O., Bergstralh, E. J., Bass, S. E., Lieber, M. M. & Jacobsen, S. J. Prostatitis as a risk factor for prostate cancer. Epidemiology 15, 93\u201399 (2004).","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1170","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/bgh317","volume":"26","author":"GS Palapattu","year":"2005","unstructured":"Palapattu, G. S. et al. Prostate carcinogenesis and inflammation: emerging insights. Carcinogenesis 26, 1170\u20131181 (2005).","journal-title":"Carcinogenesis"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/S0090-4295(02)01637-0","volume":"60","author":"LK Dennis","year":"2002","unstructured":"Dennis, L. K., Lynch, C. F. & Torner, J. C. Epidemiologic association between prostatitis and prostate cancer. Urology 60, 78\u201383 (2002).","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Platz, E. A. et al. A prospective study of chronic inflammation in benign prostate tissue and risk of prostate cancer: linked PCPT and SELECT cohorts. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-17-0503 (2017).","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-17-0503"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.20871","volume":"69","author":"F Josef Marx","year":"2009","unstructured":"Josef Marx, F. & Karenberg, A. History of the term prostate. Prostate 69, 208\u2013213 (2009).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.10224","volume":"55","author":"DG Bostwick","year":"2003","unstructured":"Bostwick, D. G., de la Roza, G., Dundore, P., Corica, F. A. & Iczkowski, K. A. Intraepithelial and stromal lymphocytes in the normal human prostate. Prostate 55, 187\u2013193 (2003).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1074","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.22991","volume":"75","author":"D Dikov","year":"2015","unstructured":"Dikov, D., Bachurska, S., Staikov, D. & Sarafian, V. Intraepithelial lymphocytes in relation to NIH category IV prostatitis in autopsy prostate. Prostate 75, 1074\u20131084 (2015).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2327","volume":"8","author":"SJ Galli","year":"2008","unstructured":"Galli, S. J., Grimbaldeston, M. & Tsai, M. Immunomodulatory mast cells: negative, as well as positive, regulators of immunity. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 8, 478\u2013486 (2008).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1159\/000342396","volume":"80","author":"T Fujii","year":"2013","unstructured":"Fujii, T. et al. Immunohistochemical analysis of inflammatory cells in benign and precancerous lesions and carcinoma of the prostate. Pathobiology 80, 119\u2013126 (2013).","journal-title":"Pathobiology"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3443","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0810473106","volume":"106","author":"KS Sfanos","year":"2009","unstructured":"Sfanos, K. S., Wilson, B. A., De Marzo, A. M. & Isaacs, W. B. Acute inflammatory proteins constitute the organic matrix of prostatic corpora amylacea and calculi in men with prostate cancer. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106, 3443\u20133448 (2009).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urology.2004.10.031","volume":"65","author":"B Difuccia","year":"2005","unstructured":"Difuccia, B., Keith, I., Teunissen, B. & Moon, T. Diagnosis of prostatic inflammation: efficacy of needle biopsies versus tissue blocks. Urology 65, 445\u2013448 (2005).","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2015.00128","volume":"5","author":"A Strasner","year":"2015","unstructured":"Strasner, A. & Karin, M. Immune infiltration and prostate cancer. Front. Oncol. 5, 128 (2015).","journal-title":"Front. Oncol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-13-1126","volume":"23","author":"B Gurel","year":"2014","unstructured":"Gurel, B. et al. Chronic inflammation in benign prostate tissue is associated with high-grade prostate cancer in the placebo arm of the prostate cancer prevention trial. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 23, 847\u2013856 (2014).","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1464-410x.1999.00352.x","volume":"84","author":"JC Nickel","year":"1999","unstructured":"Nickel, J. C., Downey, J., Young, I. & Boag, S. Asymptomatic inflammation and\/or infection in benign prostatic hyperplasia. BJU Int. 84, 976\u2013981 (1999).","journal-title":"BJU Int."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/486798","volume":"2014","author":"M Lanciotti","year":"2014","unstructured":"Lanciotti, M. et al. The role of M1 and M2 macrophages in prostate cancer in relation to extracapsular tumor extension and biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy. BioMed Res. Int. 2014, 6 (2014).","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1694","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.21020","volume":"69","author":"KS Sfanos","year":"2009","unstructured":"Sfanos, K. S. et al. Human prostate-infiltrating CD8+ T lymphocytes are oligoclonal and PD-1+. Prostate 69, 1694\u20131703 (2009).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6947","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-07-0842","volume":"13","author":"Y Kiniwa","year":"2007","unstructured":"Kiniwa, Y. et al. CD8+ Foxp3+ regulatory T cells mediate immunosuppression in prostate cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 13, 6947\u20136958 (2007).","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7398","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.177.10.7398","volume":"177","author":"AM Miller","year":"2006","unstructured":"Miller, A. M. et al. CD4+CD25high T cells are enriched in the tumor and peripheral blood of prostate cancer patients. J. Immunol. 177, 7398\u20137405 (2006).","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1038\/modpathol.2012.164","volume":"26","author":"S Davidsson","year":"2013","unstructured":"Davidsson, S. et al. CD4 helper T cells, CD8 cytotoxic T cells, and FOXP3+ regulatory T cells with respect to lethal prostate cancer. Mod. Pathol. 26, 448\u2013455 (2013).","journal-title":"Mod. Pathol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3254","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-07-5164","volume":"14","author":"KS Sfanos","year":"2008","unstructured":"Sfanos, K. S. et al. Phenotypic analysis of prostate-infiltrating lymphocytes reveals TH17 and Treg skewing. Clin. Cancer Res. 14, 3254\u20133261 (2008).","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1479-5876-12-30","volume":"12","author":"JR Woo","year":"2014","unstructured":"Woo, J. R. et al. Tumor infiltrating B-cells are increased in prostate cancer tissue. J. Transl Med. 12, 1\u20139 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Transl Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR31","first-page":"4435","volume":"25","author":"V Karja","year":"2005","unstructured":"Karja, V. et al. Tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes: a prognostic factor of PSA-free survival in patients with local prostate carcinoma treated by radical prostatectomy. Anticancer Res. 25, 4435\u20134438 (2005).","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2012.11.035","volume":"49","author":"A Flammiger","year":"2012","unstructured":"Flammiger, A. et al. High tissue density of FOXP3+ T cells is associated with clinical outcome in prostate cancer. Eur. J. Cancer 49, 1273\u20131279 (2012).","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08782","volume":"464","author":"M Ammirante","year":"2010","unstructured":"Ammirante, M., Luo, J.-L., Grivennikov, S., Nedospasov, S. & Karin, M. B-Cell-derived lymphotoxin promotes castration-resistant prostate cancer. Nature 464, 302\u2013305 (2010).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0463.2012.02924.x","volume":"120","author":"A Flammiger","year":"2012","unstructured":"Flammiger, A. et al. Intratumoral T but not B lymphocytes are related to clinical outcome in prostate cancer. APMIS 120, 901\u2013908 (2012).","journal-title":"APMIS"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.23280","volume":"77","author":"HA Hempel","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hempel, H. A. et al. Low intratumoral mast cells are associated with a higher risk of prostate cancer recurrence. Prostate 77, 412\u2013424 (2017).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR36","first-page":"445","volume":"17","author":"I Lissbrant","year":"2000","unstructured":"Lissbrant, I. et al. Tumor associated macrophages in human prostate cancer: relation to clinicopathological variables and survival. Int. J. Oncol. 17, 445\u2013451 (2000).","journal-title":"Int. J. Oncol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3250","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-04-2405","volume":"11","author":"W Wang","year":"2005","unstructured":"Wang, W., Bergh, A. & Damber, J.-E. Cyclooxygenase-2 expression correlates with local chronic inflammation and tumor neovascularization in human prostate cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 11, 3250\u20133256 (2005).","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1918","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-410X.2010.09804.x","volume":"107","author":"N Nonomura","year":"2011","unstructured":"Nonomura, N. et al. Infiltration of tumour-associated macrophages in prostate biopsy specimens is predictive of disease progression after hormonal therapy for prostate cancer. BJU Int. 107, 1918\u20131922 (2011).","journal-title":"BJU Int."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2559.2008.03058.x","volume":"53","author":"E Richardsen","year":"2008","unstructured":"Richardsen, E., Uglehus, R. D., Due, J., Busch, C. & Busund, L. T. R. The prognostic impact of M-CSF, CSF-1 receptor, CD68 and CD3 in prostatic carcinoma. Histopathology 53, 30\u201338 (2008).","journal-title":"Histopathology"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1016\/S0090-4295(99)00152-1","volume":"54","author":"J Irani","year":"1999","unstructured":"Irani, J. et al. High-grade inflammation in prostate cancer as a prognostic factor for biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy. Urology 54, 467\u2013472 (1999).","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjc.6601943","volume":"91","author":"PA McArdle","year":"2004","unstructured":"McArdle, P. A. et al. The relationship between T-lymphocyte subset infiltration and survival in patients with prostate cancer. Br. J. Cancer 91, 541\u2013543 (2004).","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-065X.2008.00616.x","volume":"222","author":"R Kennedy","year":"2008","unstructured":"Kennedy, R. & Celis, E. Multiple roles for CD4+ T cells in anti-tumor immune responses. Immunol. Rev. 222, 129\u2013144 (2008).","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2006-02-002774","volume":"108","author":"M Beyer","year":"2006","unstructured":"Beyer, M. & Schultze, J. L. Regulatory T cells in cancer. Blood 108, 804\u2013811 (2006).","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra021562","volume":"349","author":"WG Nelson","year":"2003","unstructured":"Nelson, W. G., De Marzo, A. M. & Isaacs, W. B. Prostate cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 349, 366\u2013381 (2003).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccr.2011.09.012","volume":"20","author":"HM O'Hagan","year":"2011","unstructured":"O'Hagan, H. M. et al. Oxidative damage targets complexes containing DNA methyltransferases, SIRT1, and polycomb members to promoter CpG Islands. Cancer Cell 20, 606\u2013619 (2011).","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1000155","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1000155","volume":"4","author":"HM O'Hagan","year":"2008","unstructured":"O'Hagan, H. M., Mohammad, H. P. & Baylin, S. B. Double strand breaks can initiate gene silencing and SIRT1-dependent onset of DNA methylation in an exogenous promoter CpG island. PLoS Genet. 4, e1000155 (2008).","journal-title":"PLoS Genet."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8954","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-07-6088","volume":"68","author":"S Yegnasubramanian","year":"2008","unstructured":"Yegnasubramanian, S. et al. DNA hypomethylation arises later in prostate cancer progression than CpG island hypermethylation and contributes to metastatic tumor heterogeneity. Cancer Res. 68, 8954\u20138967 (2008).","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169ra110","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3005211","volume":"5","author":"MJ Aryee","year":"2013","unstructured":"Aryee, M. J. et al. DNA methylation alterations exhibit intraindividual stability and interindividual heterogeneity in prostate cancer metastases. Sci. Transl Med. 5, 169ra110 (2013).","journal-title":"Sci. Transl Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2016.11.019","volume":"17","author":"RS Mani","year":"2016","unstructured":"Mani, R. S. et al. Inflammation-induced oxidative stress mediates gene fusion formation in prostate cancer. Cell Rep. 17, 2620\u20132631 (2016).","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.613","volume":"42","author":"MC Haffner","year":"2010","unstructured":"Haffner, M. C. et al. Androgen-induced TOP2B-mediated double-strand breaks and prostate cancer gene rearrangements. Nat. Genet. 42, 668\u2013675 (2010).","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3858","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-10-2044","volume":"17","author":"MC Haffner","year":"2011","unstructured":"Haffner, M. C., De Marzo, A. M., Meeker, A. K., Nelson, W. G. & Yegnasubramanian, S. Transcription-induced DNA double strand breaks: both oncogenic force and potential therapeutic target? Clin. Cancer Res. 17, 3858\u20133864 (2011).","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1529","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)64286-1","volume":"162","author":"GJ van Leenders","year":"2003","unstructured":"van Leenders, G. J. et al. Intermediate cells in human prostate epithelium are enriched in proliferative inflammatory atrophy. Am. J. Pathol. 162, 1529\u20131537 (2003).","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1985","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)65517-4","volume":"155","author":"AM De Marzo","year":"1999","unstructured":"De Marzo, A. M., Marchi, V. L., Epstein, J. I. & Nelson, W. G. Proliferative inflammatory atrophy of the prostate: implications for prostatic carcinogenesis. Am. J. Pathol. 155, 1985\u20131992 (1999).","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0463.2008.00006.x","volume":"117","author":"W Wang","year":"2009","unstructured":"Wang, W., Bergh, A. & Damber, J. E. Increased p53 immunoreactivity in proliferative inflammatory atrophy of prostate is related to focal acute inflammation. APMIS 117, 185\u2013195 (2009).","journal-title":"APMIS"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6961","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.88.16.6961","volume":"88","author":"DM Hockenbery","year":"1991","unstructured":"Hockenbery, D. M., Zutter, M., Hickey, W., Nahm, M. & Korsmeyer, S. J. BCL2 protein is topographically restricted in tissues characterized by apoptotic cell death. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 88, 6961\u20136965 (1991).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1156","DOI":"10.1038\/modpathol.2008.111","volume":"21","author":"B Gurel","year":"2008","unstructured":"Gurel, B. et al. Nuclear MYC protein overexpression is an early alteration in human prostate carcinogenesis. Mod. Pathol. 21, 1156\u20131167 (2008).","journal-title":"Mod. Pathol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1177\/1947601910379132","volume":"1","author":"CM Koh","year":"2010","unstructured":"Koh, C. M. et al. MYC and prostate cancer. Genes Cancer 1, 617\u2013628 (2010).","journal-title":"Genes Cancer"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1016\/S0090-4295(00)00776-7","volume":"56","author":"MJ Putzi","year":"2000","unstructured":"Putzi, M. J. & De Marzo, A. M. Morphologic transitions between proliferative inflammatory atrophy and high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia. Urology 56, 828\u2013832 (2000).","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1378","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.20992","volume":"69","author":"W Wang","year":"2009","unstructured":"Wang, W., Bergh, A. & Damber, J. E. Morphological transition of proliferative inflammatory atrophy to high-grade intraepithelial neoplasia and cancer in human prostate. Prostate 69, 1378\u20131386 (2009).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9440(10)63452-9","volume":"163","author":"M Nakayama","year":"2003","unstructured":"Nakayama, M. et al. Hypermethylation of the human glutathione S-transferase-\u03c0 gene (GSTP1) CpG island is present in a subset of proliferative inflammatory atrophy lesions but not in normal or hyperplastic epithelium of the prostate: a detailed study using laser-capture microdissection. Am. J. Pathol. 163, 923\u2013933 (2003).","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1038\/nrurol.2010.188","volume":"7","author":"AM De Marzo","year":"2010","unstructured":"De Marzo, A. M., Nelson, W. G., Bieberich, C. J. & Yegnasubramanian, S. Prostate cancer: new answers prompt new questions regarding cell of origin. Nat. Rev. Urol. 7, 650\u2013652 (2010).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Urol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2596","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2016.11.010","volume":"17","author":"X Liu","year":"2016","unstructured":"Liu, X. et al. Low CD38 identifies progenitor-like inflammation-associated luminal cells that can initiate human prostate cancer and predict poor outcome. Cell Rep. 17, 2596\u20132606 (2016).","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.pcan.4500930","volume":"10","author":"EV Vykhovanets","year":"2007","unstructured":"Vykhovanets, E. V., Resnick, M. I., MacLennan, G. T. & Gupta, S. Experimental rodent models of prostatitis: limitations and potential. Prostate Cancer Prostat. Dis. 10, 15\u201329 (2007).","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostat. Dis."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.22648","volume":"73","author":"DB Shinohara","year":"2013","unstructured":"Shinohara, D. B. et al. A mouse model of chronic prostatic inflammation using a human prostate cancer-derived isolate of Propionibacterium acnes. Prostate 73, 1007\u20131015 (2013).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1002\/path.4472","volume":"235","author":"BW Simons","year":"2015","unstructured":"Simons, B. W. et al. A human prostatic bacterial isolate alters the prostatic microenvironment and accelerates prostate cancer progression. J. Pathol. 235, 478\u2013489 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1158\/1940-6207.CAPR-15-0090","volume":"8","author":"KS Sfanos","year":"2015","unstructured":"Sfanos, K. S. et al. Bacterial prostatitis enhances 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-\u03b2]pyridine (PhIP)-induced cancer at multiple sites. Cancer Prevention Res. 8, 683\u2013692 (2015).","journal-title":"Cancer Prevention Res."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E592","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1318157111","volume":"111","author":"O-J Kwon","year":"2014","unstructured":"Kwon, O.-J., Zhang, L., Ittmann, M. M. & Xin, L. Prostatic inflammation enhances basal-to-luminal differentiation and accelerates initiation of prostate cancer with a basal cell origin. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, E592\u2013E600 (2014).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e51434","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0051434","volume":"7","author":"J Olsson","year":"2012","unstructured":"Olsson, J. et al. Chronic prostatic infection and inflammation by Propionibacterium acnes in a rat prostate infection model. PLoS ONE 7, e51434 (2012).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.20445","volume":"67","author":"JE Elkahwaji","year":"2007","unstructured":"Elkahwaji, J. E., Zhong, W., Hopkins, W. J. & Bushman, W. Chronic bacterial infection and inflammation incite reactive hyperplasia in a mouse model of chronic prostatitis. Prostate 67, 14\u201321 (2007).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2259","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2010.080747","volume":"176","author":"M Khalili","year":"2010","unstructured":"Khalili, M. et al. Loss of Nkx3.1 expression in bacterial prostatitis. Am. J. Pathol. 176, 2259\u20132268 (2010).","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.21327","volume":"71","author":"JM Haverkamp","year":"2011","unstructured":"Haverkamp, J. M. et al. An inducible model of abacterial prostatitis induces antigen specific inflammatory and proliferative changes in the murine prostate. Prostate 71, 1139\u20131150 (2011).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1003466","volume":"363","author":"FS Hodi","year":"2010","unstructured":"Hodi, F. S. et al. Improved survival with ipilimumab in patients with metastatic melanoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 363, 711\u2013723 (2010).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2517","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1104621","volume":"364","author":"C Robert","year":"2011","unstructured":"Robert, C. et al. Ipilimumab plus dacarbazine for previously untreated metastatic melanoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 364, 2517\u20132526 (2011).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2521","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1503093","volume":"372","author":"C Robert","year":"2015","unstructured":"Robert, C. et al. Pembrolizumab versus ipilimumab in advanced melanoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 372, 2521\u20132532 (2015).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1412082","volume":"372","author":"C Robert","year":"2015","unstructured":"Robert, C. et al. Nivolumab in previously untreated melanoma without BRAF mutation. N. Engl. J. Med. 372, 320\u2013330 (2015).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(15)70076-8","volume":"16","author":"JS Weber","year":"2015","unstructured":"Weber, J. S. et al. Nivolumab versus chemotherapy in patients with advanced melanoma who progressed after anti-CTLA-4 treatment (CheckMate 037): a randomised, controlled, open-label, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 16, 375\u2013384 (2015).","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1803","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1510665","volume":"373","author":"RJ Motzer","year":"2015","unstructured":"Motzer, R. J. et al. Nivolumab versus everolimus in advanced renal-cell carcinoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 373, 1803\u20131813 (2015).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1504627","volume":"373","author":"J Brahmer","year":"2015","unstructured":"Brahmer, J. et al. Nivolumab versus docetaxel in advanced squamous-cell non-small-cell lung cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 373, 123\u2013135 (2015).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1627","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1507643","volume":"373","author":"H Borghaei","year":"2015","unstructured":"Borghaei, H. et al. Nivolumab versus docetaxel in advanced nonsquamous non-small-cell lung cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 373, 1627\u20131639 (2015).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3670","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.24429","volume":"115","author":"CS Higano","year":"2009","unstructured":"Higano, C. S. et al. Integrated data from 2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trials of active cellular immunotherapy with sipuleucel-T in advanced prostate cancer. Cancer 115, 3670\u20133679 (2009).","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1001294","volume":"363","author":"PW Kantoff","year":"2010","unstructured":"Kantoff, P. W. et al. Sipuleucel-T immunotherapy for castration-resistant prostate cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 363, 411\u2013422 (2010).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3167","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2009.26.7609","volume":"28","author":"JR Brahmer","year":"2010","unstructured":"Brahmer, J. R. et al. Phase I study of single-agent anti-programmed death-1 (MDX-1106) in refractory solid tumors: safety, clinical activity, pharmacodynamics, and immunologic correlates. J. Clin. Oncol. 28, 3167\u20133175 (2010).","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(14)70189-5","volume":"15","author":"ED Kwon","year":"2014","unstructured":"Kwon, E. D. et al. Ipilimumab versus placebo after radiotherapy in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer that had progressed after docetaxel chemotherapy (CA184-043): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 15, 700\u2013712 (2014).","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2443","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1200690","volume":"366","author":"SL Topalian","year":"2012","unstructured":"Topalian, S. L. et al. Safety, activity, and immune correlates of anti\u2013PD-1 antibody in cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 366, 2443\u20132454 (2012).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23001","DOI":"10.1038\/srep23001","volume":"6","author":"N Harada","year":"2016","unstructured":"Harada, N. et al. Castration influences intestinal microflora and induces abdominal obesity in high-fat diet-fed mice. Sci. Rep. 6, 23001 (2016).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e82659","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0082659","volume":"8","author":"Y-D Nam","year":"2013","unstructured":"Nam, Y.-D., Kim, H. J., Seo, J.-G., Kang, S. W. & Bae, J.-W. Impact of pelvic radiotherapy on gut microbiota of gynecological cancer patients revealed by massive pyrosequencing. PLoS ONE 8, e82659 (2013).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc3245","volume":"12","author":"WH Fridman","year":"2012","unstructured":"Fridman, W. H., Pag\u00e8s, F., Saut\u00e8s-Fridman, C. & Galon, J. The immune contexture in human tumours: impact on clinical outcome. Nat. Rev. Cancer 12, 298\u2013306 (2012).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1186\/1479-5876-10-205","volume":"10","author":"J Galon","year":"2012","unstructured":"Galon, J. et al. Cancer classification using the Immunoscore: a worldwide task force. J. Transl Med. 10, 205\u2013205 (2012).","journal-title":"J. Transl Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1002\/path.4287","volume":"232","author":"J Galon","year":"2014","unstructured":"Galon, J. et al. Towards the introduction of the 'Immunoscore' in the classification of malignant tumours. J. Pathol. 232, 199\u2013209 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"issue":"Suppl. 3","key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"P193","DOI":"10.1186\/2051-1426-2-S3-P193","volume":"2","author":"M Capone","year":"2014","unstructured":"Capone, M. et al. Immunoscore: a new possible approach for melanoma classification [abstract]. J. Immunother. Cancer 2 (Suppl. 3), P193 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Immunother. Cancer"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52810","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.10547","volume":"7","author":"JN Graff","year":"2016","unstructured":"Graff, J. N. et al. Early evidence of anti-PD-1 activity in enzalutamide-resistant prostate cancer. Oncotarget 7, 52810\u201352817 (2016).","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.2703","volume":"6","author":"JL Bishop","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bishop, J. L. et al. PD-L1 is highly expressed in Enzalutamide resistant prostate cancer. Oncotarget 6, 234\u2013242 (2015).","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1038\/pcan.2015.39","volume":"18","author":"AM Martin","year":"2015","unstructured":"Martin, A. M. et al. Paucity of PD-L1 expression in prostate cancer: innate and adaptive immune resistance. Prostate Cancer Prostat. Dis. 18, 325\u2013332 (2015).","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostat. Dis."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1969","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-15-2042","volume":"22","author":"H Gevensleben","year":"2016","unstructured":"Gevensleben, H. et al. The immune checkpoint regulator PD-L1 is highly expressed in aggressive primary prostate cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 22, 1969\u20131977 (2016).","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR95","unstructured":"Abcam. Anti-PD-L1 antibody [EPR1161(2)] ab174838. Abcam http:\/\/www.abcam.com\/pd-l1-antibody-epr11612-ab174838.html (2017)."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2009.02.015","volume":"45","author":"K Ebelt","year":"2009","unstructured":"Ebelt, K. et al. Prostate cancer lesions are surrounded by FOXP3+, PD-1+ and B7-H1+ lymphocyte clusters. Eur. J. Cancer 45, 1664\u20131672 (2009).","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cancer"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc1586","volume":"5","author":"W Zou","year":"2005","unstructured":"Zou, W. Immunosuppressive networks in the tumour environment and their therapeutic relevance. Nat. Rev. Cancer 5, 263\u2013274 (2005).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad1329","volume":"350","author":"M V\u00e9tizou","year":"2015","unstructured":"V\u00e9tizou, M. et al. Anticancer immunotherapy by CTLA-4 blockade relies on the gut microbiota. Science 350, 1079\u20131084 (2015).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1240527","volume":"342","author":"N Iida","year":"2013","unstructured":"Iida, N. et al. Commensal bacteria control cancer response to therapy by modulating the tumor microenvironment. Science 342, 967\u2013970 (2013).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1240537","volume":"342","author":"S Viaud","year":"2013","unstructured":"Viaud, S. et al. The intestinal microbiota modulates the anticancer immune effects of cyclophosphamide. Science 342, 971\u2013976 (2013).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aac4255","volume":"350","author":"A Sivan","year":"2015","unstructured":"Sivan, A. et al. Commensal Bifidobacterium promotes antitumor immunity and facilitates anti-PD-L1 efficacy. Science 350, 1084\u20131089 (2015).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pathol.4.110807.092135","volume":"5","author":"AM Marchiando","year":"2010","unstructured":"Marchiando, A. M., Graham, W. V. & Turner, J. R. Epithelial barriers in homeostasis and disease. Annu. Rev. Pathol. 5, 119\u2013144 (2010).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pathol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3608","volume":"14","author":"LW Peterson","year":"2014","unstructured":"Peterson, L. W. & Artis, D. Intestinal epithelial cells: regulators of barrier function and immune homeostasis. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 14, 141\u2013153 (2014).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.20984","volume":"69","author":"G Gatti","year":"2009","unstructured":"Gatti, G. et al. Expression of Toll-like receptor 4 in the prostate gland and its association with the severity of prostate cancer. Prostate 69, 1387\u20131397 (2009).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.12055","volume":"17","author":"G Gambara","year":"2013","unstructured":"Gambara, G. et al. Toll-like receptors in prostate infection and cancer between bench and bedside. J. Cell. Mol. Med. 17, 713\u2013722 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2567","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1200856","volume":"190","author":"ML Manning","year":"2013","unstructured":"Manning, M. L., Williams, S. A., Jelinek, C. A., Kostova, M. B. & Denmeade, S. R. Proteolysis of complement factors iC3b and C5 by the serine protease prostate-specific antigen in prostatic fluid and seminal plasma. J. Immunol. 190, 2567\u20132574 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5347(17)50387-0","volume":"131","author":"JE Fowler Jr","year":"1984","unstructured":"Fowler, J. E. Jr & Mariano, M. Longitudinal studies of prostatic fluid immunoglobulin in men with bacterial prostatitis. J. Urol. 131, 363\u2013369 (1984).","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.2990040405","volume":"4","author":"JT Isaacs","year":"1983","unstructured":"Isaacs, J. T. Prostatic structure and function in relation to the etiology of prostatic cancer. Prostate 4, 351\u2013366 (1983).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR109","first-page":"247","volume":"75A","author":"WR Fair","year":"1981","unstructured":"Fair, W. R. & Parrish, R. F. Antibacterial substances in prostatic fluid. Prog. Clin. Biol. Res. 75A, 247\u2013264 (1981).","journal-title":"Prog. Clin. Biol. Res."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1007\/s00005-008-0031-4","volume":"56","author":"B Zdrodowska-Stefanow","year":"2008","unstructured":"Zdrodowska-Stefanow, B., Ostaszewska-Puchalska, I., Badyda, J. & Galewska, Z. The evaluation of markers of prostatic inflammation and function of the prostate gland in patients with chronic prostatitis. Arch. Immunol. Ther. Exp. 56, 277\u2013282 (2008).","journal-title":"Arch. Immunol. Ther. Exp."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/0090-4295(76)90305-8","volume":"7","author":"WR Fair","year":"1976","unstructured":"Fair, W. R., Couch, J. & Wehner, N. Prostatic antibacterial factor identity and significance. Urology 7, 169\u2013177 (1976).","journal-title":"Urology"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urolonc.2012.01.013","volume":"31","author":"J Hrbacek","year":"2014","unstructured":"Hrbacek, J., Urban, M., Hamsikova, E., Tachezy, R. & Heracek, J. Thirty years of research on infection and prostate cancer: no conclusive evidence for a link. A systematic review. Urol. Oncol. 31, 951\u2013965 (2014).","journal-title":"Urol. Oncol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1937","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5347(05)00892-X","volume":"175","author":"S Sutcliffe","year":"2006","unstructured":"Sutcliffe, S. et al. Sexually transmitted infections and prostatic inflammation\/cell damage as measured by serum prostate specific antigen concentration. J. Urol. 175, 1937\u20131942 (2006).","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1038\/bjc.2011.271","volume":"105","author":"S Sutcliffe","year":"2011","unstructured":"Sutcliffe, S. et al. Prostate involvement during sexually transmitted infections as measured by prostate-specific antigen concentration. Br. J. Cancer 105, 602\u2013605 (2011).","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.23392","volume":"77","author":"M Milbrandt","year":"2017","unstructured":"Milbrandt, M. et al. Insight into infection-mediated prostate damage: contrasting patterns of C-reactive protein and prostate-specific antigen levels during infection. Prostate 77, 1325\u20131334 (2017).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.20680","volume":"68","author":"KS Sfanos","year":"2008","unstructured":"Sfanos, K. S. et al. A molecular analysis of prokaryotic and viral DNA sequences in prostate tissue from patients with prostate cancer indicates the presence of multiple and diverse microorganisms. Prostate 68, 306\u2013320 (2008).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1969","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ju.0000158161.15277.78","volume":"173","author":"RJ Cohen","year":"2005","unstructured":"Cohen, R. J., Shannon, B. A., McNeal, J. E., Shannon, T. & Garrett, K. L. Propionibacterium acnes associated with inflammation in radical prostatectomy specimens: a possible link to cancer evolution? J. Urol. 173, 1969\u20131974 (2005).","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.22621","volume":"73","author":"TN Mak","year":"2013","unstructured":"Mak, T. N., Yu, S. H., De Marzo, A. M., Bruggemann, H. & Sfanos, K. S. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analysis of Propionibacterium acnes isolates from radical prostatectomy specimens. Prostate 73, 770\u2013777 (2013).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1492","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.20820","volume":"68","author":"KS Sfanos","year":"2008","unstructured":"Sfanos, K. S. & Isaacs, W. B. An evaluation of PCR primer sets used for detection of Propionibacterium acnes in prostate tissue samples. Prostate 68, 1492\u20131495 (2008).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e5562","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0005562","volume":"4","author":"K Yanamandra","year":"2009","unstructured":"Yanamandra, K. et al. Amyloid formation by the pro-inflammatory S100A8\/A9 proteins in the ageing prostate. PLoS ONE 4, e5562 (2009).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2374","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-08-0173","volume":"17","author":"W-Y Huang","year":"2008","unstructured":"Huang, W.-Y. et al. Sexually transmissible infections and prostate cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol., Biomarkers Prevention 17, 2374\u20132381 (2008).","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol., Biomarkers Prevention"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR122","first-page":"506","volume":"37","author":"ML Taylor","year":"2005","unstructured":"Taylor, M. L., Mainous, A. G. 3rd & Wells, B. J. Prostate cancer and sexually transmitted diseases: a meta-analysis. Family Med. 37, 506\u2013512 (2005).","journal-title":"Family Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-05-0781","volume":"15","author":"S Sutcliffe","year":"2006","unstructured":"Sutcliffe, S. et al. Plasma antibodies against Trichomonas vaginalis and subsequent risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 15, 939\u2013945 (2006).","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1573","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-07-0134","volume":"16","author":"S Sutcliffe","year":"2007","unstructured":"Sutcliffe, S. et al. Plasma antibodies against Chlamydia trachomatis, Human Papillomavirus, and Human Herpesvirus Type 8 in relation to prostate cancer: a prospective study. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 16, 1573\u20131580 (2007).","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.EPI-03-0325","volume":"14","author":"T Anttila","year":"2005","unstructured":"Anttila, T. et al. Chlamydial antibodies and risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 14, 385\u2013389 (2005).","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1038\/nrurol.2014.361","volume":"12","author":"SA Whiteside","year":"2015","unstructured":"Whiteside, S. A., Razvi, H., Dave, S., Reid, G. & Burton, J. P. The microbiome of the urinary tract-a role beyond infection. Nat. Rev. Urol. 12, 81\u201390 (2015).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Urol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-017-0305-3","volume":"5","author":"C Gottschick","year":"2017","unstructured":"Gottschick, C. et al. The urinary microbiota of men and women and its changes in women during bacterial vaginosis and antibiotic treatment. Microbiome 5, 99 (2017).","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e01283-14","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01283-14","volume":"5","author":"MM Pearce","year":"2014","unstructured":"Pearce, M. M. et al. The female urinary microbiome: a comparison of women with and without urgency urinary incontinence. mBio 5, e01283-14 (2014).","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02876-13","volume":"52","author":"EE Hilt","year":"2014","unstructured":"Hilt, E. E. et al. Urine is not sterile: use of enhanced urine culture techniques to detect resident bacterial flora in the adult female bladder. J. Clin. Microbiol. 52, 871\u2013876 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e14116","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0014116","volume":"5","author":"DE Nelson","year":"2010","unstructured":"Nelson, D. E. et al. Characteristic male urine microbiomes associate with asymptomatic sexually tansmitted infection. PLoS ONE 5, e14116 (2010).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e36298","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0036298","volume":"7","author":"DE Nelson","year":"2012","unstructured":"Nelson, D. E. et al. Bacterial communities of the coronal sulcus and distal urethra of adolescent males. PLoS ONE 7, e36298 (2012).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR132","first-page":"14","volume":"6","author":"TM Santiago-Rodriguez","year":"2015","unstructured":"Santiago-Rodriguez, T. M., Ly, M., Bonilla, N. & Pride, D. T. The human urine virome in association with urinary tract infections. Front. Microbiol. 6, 14 (2015).","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2015.09.075","volume":"195","author":"JC Nickel","year":"2015","unstructured":"Nickel, J. C. et al. Assessment of the lower urinary tract microbiota during symptom flare in women with urologic chronic pelvic pain syndrome: a MAPP network study. J. Urol. 195, 356\u2013362 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e19709","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0019709","volume":"6","author":"Q Dong","year":"2011","unstructured":"Dong, Q. et al. The microbial communities in male first catch urine are highly similar to those in paired urethral swab specimens. PLoS ONE 6, e19709 (2011).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2007.11.081","volume":"179","author":"JC Nickel","year":"2008","unstructured":"Nickel, J. C. & Xiang, J. Clinical significance of nontraditional bacterial uropathogens in the management of chronic prostatitis. J. Urol. 179, 1391\u20131395 (2008).","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1186\/1479-5876-10-174","volume":"10","author":"DE Fouts","year":"2012","unstructured":"Fouts, D. E. et al. Integrated next-generation sequencing of 16S rDNA and metaproteomics differentiate the healthy urine microbiome from asymptomatic bacteriuria in neuropathic bladder associated with spinal cord injury. J. Transl Med. 10, 174 (2012).","journal-title":"J. Transl Med."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Shrestha, E. et al. Profiling the urinary microbiome in men with positive versus negative biopsies for prostate cancer. J. Urol. http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016\/j.juro.2017.08.001 (2017).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2017.08.001"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1186\/s13027-016-0074-9","volume":"11","author":"S Davidsson","year":"2016","unstructured":"Davidsson, S. et al. Frequency and typing of Propionibacterium acnes in prostate tissue obtained from men with and without prostate cancer. Infect. Agent. Cancer 11, 26 (2016).","journal-title":"Infect. Agent. Cancer"},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2015.01.037","volume":"194","author":"JC Nickel","year":"2015","unstructured":"Nickel, J. C. et al. Search for microorganisms in men with urologic chronic pelvic pain syndrome: a culture-independent analysis in the MAPP research network. J. Urol. 194, 127\u2013135 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23027","DOI":"10.1038\/srep23027","volume":"6","author":"AB Javurek","year":"2016","unstructured":"Javurek, A. B. et al. Discovery of a novel seminal fluid microbiome and influence of estrogen receptor alpha genetic status. Sci. Rep. 6, 23027 (2016).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2015.05.014","volume":"71","author":"D Horwitz","year":"2015","unstructured":"Horwitz, D. et al. Decreased microbiota diversity associated with urinary tract infection in a trial of bacterial interference. J. Infect. 71, 358\u2013367 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canep.2014.06.002","volume":"38","author":"S Caini","year":"2014","unstructured":"Caini, S. et al. Sexually transmitted infections and prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol. 38, 329\u2013338 (2014).","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-410X.1982.tb13635.x","volume":"54","author":"RS Kirby","year":"1982","unstructured":"Kirby, R. S., Lowe, D., Bultitude, M. I. & Shuttleworth, K. E. Intra-prostatic urinary reflux: an aetiological factor in abacterial prostatitis. Br. J. Urol. 54, 729\u2013731 (1982).","journal-title":"Br. J. Urol."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.5114\/aoms.2015.50970","volume":"11","author":"H Yu","year":"2015","unstructured":"Yu, H. et al. Urinary microbiota in patients with prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Arch. Med. Sci. 11, 385\u2013394 (2015).","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Sci."},{"key":"BFnrurol2017167_CR145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urology.2010.12.059","volume":"77","author":"JN Krieger","year":"2011","unstructured":"Krieger, J. N., Dobrindt, U., Riley, D. E. & Oswald, E. Acute Escherichia coli prostatitis in previously health young men: bacterial virulence factors, antimicrobial resistance, and clinical outcomes. Urology 77, 1420\u20131425 (2011).","journal-title":"Urology"}],"container-title":["Nature Reviews Urology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nrurol.2017.167.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nrurol.2017.167","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/www.nature.com\/doifinder\/10.1038\/nrurol.2017.167","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"},{"URL":"http:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nrurol.2017.167.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,19]],"date-time":"2023-05-19T00:18:29Z","timestamp":1684455509000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/nrurol.2017.167"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,31]]},"references-count":145,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,1]]}},"alternative-id":["BFnrurol2017167"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nrurol.2017.167","relation":{"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.3410\/f.732062897.793548719","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1759-4812","1759-4820"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1759-4812","type":"print"},{"value":"1759-4820","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,31]]},"assertion":[{"value":"31 October 2017","order":1,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing financial interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}]}}