{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T13:07:55Z","timestamp":1791810475693,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]],"date-time":"2026-05-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780099200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]],"date-time":"2026-05-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780099200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Lead is a persistent environmental toxicant associated with adverse neurodevelopmental and behavioral outcomes, with children particularly vulnerable due to heightened exposure and biological susceptibility. Although population blood lead levels in U.S. children have declined substantially, a large proportion remain above levels associated with harm, indicating ongoing exposure from additional sources. Firearms use lead-based ammunition and primers and discharging a firearm releases lead particles that can be inhaled or transported into residential environments via take-home contamination.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To examine whether firearm ownership and storage practices were prospectively associated with children\u2019s blood lead levels and residential dust lead.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      In the HOME Study (Cincinnati, Ohio, enrolled 2003\u20132006), blood lead levels (\u00b5g\/L; 10\u2009\u00b5g\/L\u2009=\u20091\u2009\u00b5g\/dL) were measured at ages 12, 24, and 36 months (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009323) and floor dust lead (\u00b5g\/ft\u00b2) at baseline, 12, and 24 months (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009316). Caregivers reported firearm ownership, number of firearms, and storage practices during pregnancy. We fit generalized estimating equations to log\u2082-transformed blood lead levels and log\u2081\u2080-transformed dust lead, adjusting for income, race\/ethnicity, flooring, cleanliness, maternal age, and child sex.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Among firearm owners (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200957\u201359 per analysis), homes where firearms were not stored or locked had 29\u201384% higher dust lead at baseline through age 24 months and children had ~20% higher blood lead levels at ages 12\u201336 months. Associations between firearm ownership and dust and blood lead levels appeared mostly null.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Significance<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Among firearm owners, less safe storage was associated with higher floor dust and child blood lead levels, though some results were imprecise. Safe firearm and ammunition storage may reduce pediatric lead exposure in gun-owning households.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Impact<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n                        <jats:list-item>\n                          <jats:p>This prospective birth cohort study evaluates household firearms and storage practices as an understudied source of pediatric exposure. Using repeated measures of children\u2019s blood and residential floor dust lead concentrations, we examined whether firearm ownership and firearm\/ammunition storage practices during pregnancy were associated with lead biomarkers from birth through 36 months. Findings suggest that, among firearm-owning households, less secure storage practices are associated with higher residential dust lead and higher child blood lead levels. These results highlight a potentially modifiable exposure pathway relevant to environmental exposure science and pediatric lead prevention.<\/jats:p>\n                        <\/jats:list-item>\n                      <\/jats:list>\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41370-026-00928-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T06:01:46Z","timestamp":1780293706000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Firearms, storage practices, and child blood lead levels and household dust lead loadings: findings from the HOME study"],"prefix":"10.1038","author":[{"given":"Christian","family":"Hoover","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yingying","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruce","family":"Lanphear","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kimberly","family":"Yolton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicholas","family":"Newman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph M.","family":"Braun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"928_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e177","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(18)30025-2","volume":"3","author":"BP Lanphear","year":"2018","unstructured":"Lanphear BP, Rauch S, Auinger P, Allen RW, Hornung RW. Low-level lead exposure and mortality in US adults: a population-based cohort study. Lancet Public Health. 2018;3:e177\u2013e184.","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"928_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Reuben A, Schaefer JD, Moffitt TE, Broadbent J, Harrington H, Houts RM et al. Association of childhood lead exposure with adult personality traits and lifelong mental health. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2018.4192.","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2018.4192"},{"key":"928_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7688","volume":"113","author":"BP Lanphear","year":"2005","unstructured":"Lanphear BP, Hornung R, Khoury J, Yolton K, Baghurst P, Bellinger DC, et al. Low-level environmental lead exposure and children\u2019s intellectual function: an international pooled analysis. Environ Health Perspect. 2005;113:894\u20139.","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"928_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpem.2017.07.010","volume":"18","author":"M Hauptman","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hauptman M, Bruccoleri R, Woolf AD. An update on childhood lead poisoning. Clin Pediatr Emerg Med. 2017;18:181\u201392.","journal-title":"Clin Pediatr Emerg Med"},{"key":"928_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra2402527","volume":"391","author":"B Lanphear","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lanphear B, Navas-Acien A, Bellinger DC. Lead poisoning. N Engl J Med. 2024;391:1621\u201331.","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"928_CR6","unstructured":"Guideline for Clinical Management of Exposure to Lead. World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2021."},{"key":"928_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP12382","volume":"131","author":"J Caravanos","year":"2023","unstructured":"Caravanos J, Nassif J, Lanphear B, Landrigan PJ, Hu H, Fuller R. Invited perspective: an argument for changing the reporting units for lead in blood. Environ Health Perspect. 2023;131:091303.","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"928_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP7932","volume":"129","author":"KB Egan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Egan KB, Cornwell CR, Courtney JG, Ettinger AS. Blood lead levels in U.S. children ages 1\u201311 years, 1976\u20132016. Environ Health Perspect. 2021;129:037003.","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"928_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2021.3518","volume":"175","author":"M Hauptman","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hauptman M, Niles JK, Gudin J, Kaufman HW. Individual- and community-level factors associated with detectable and elevated blood lead levels in US children: results from a national clinical laboratory. JAMA Pediatrics. 2021;175:1252\u201360.","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatrics"},{"key":"928_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0002177","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0002177","volume":"3","author":"MJ Talayero","year":"2023","unstructured":"Talayero MJ, Robbins CR, Smith ER, Santos-Burgoa C. The association between lead exposure and crime: a systematic review. PLOS Glob Public Health. 2023;3:e0002177.","journal-title":"PLOS Glob Public Health"},{"key":"928_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2019.108822","volume":"180","author":"LR Emer","year":"2020","unstructured":"Emer LR, Kalkbrenner AE, O\u2019Brien M, Yan A, Cisler RA, Weinhardt L. Association of childhood blood lead levels with firearm violence perpetration and victimization in Milwaukee. Environ Res. 2020;180:108822.","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"928_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2022.107377","volume":"166","author":"C Hoover","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hoover C, Specht AJ, Hemenway D. Firearm licensure, lead levels and suicides in Massachusetts. Prev Med. 2022;166:107377.","journal-title":"Prev Med"},{"key":"928_CR13","unstructured":"Populations NRC (US) C on ML in C. Lead Exposure of Sensitive Populations. In: Measuring Lead Exposure in Infants, Children, and Other Sensitive Populations. National Academies Press (US), 1993. https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK236466\/ (accessed 31 July 2025)."},{"key":"928_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2016-1493","volume":"138","author":"COUNCILONENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH","year":"2016","unstructured":"HEALTH COUNCILONENVIRONMENTAL, Lanphear BP, Lowry JA, Ahdoot S, Baum CR, Bernstein AS, et al. Prevention of childhood lead toxicity. Pediatrics. 2016;138:e20161493.","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"928_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"a178","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1306945","volume":"121","author":"DC Bellinger","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bellinger DC, Burger J, Cade TJ, Cory-Slechta DA, Finkelstein M, Hu H, et al. Health risks from lead-based ammunition in the environment. Environ Health Perspect. 2013;121:a178\u2013a179.","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"928_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Laidlaw MAS, Filippelli G, Mielke H, Gulson B, Ball AS. Lead exposure at firing ranges\u2014a review. Environ Health. 2017; 16. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12940-017-0246-0.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-017-0246-0"},{"key":"928_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1007\/s13280-019-01221-x","volume":"48","author":"JM Arnemo","year":"2019","unstructured":"Arnemo JM, Cromie R, Fox AD, Kanstrup N, Mateo R, Pain DJ, et al. Transition to lead-free ammunition benefits all. Ambio. 2019;48:1097\u20138.","journal-title":"Ambio"},{"key":"928_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-016-1375-7","volume":"130","author":"D Merli","year":"2016","unstructured":"Merli D, Brandone A, Amadasi A, Cattaneo C, Profumo A. The detection of gunshot residues in the nasal mucus of suspected shooters. Int J Leg Med. 2016;130:1045\u201352.","journal-title":"Int J Leg Med"},{"key":"928_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-008-0348-7","volume":"82","author":"M Demmeler","year":"2009","unstructured":"Demmeler M, Nowak D, Schierl R. High blood lead levels in recreational indoor-shooters. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2009;82:539\u201342.","journal-title":"Int Arch Occup Environ Health"},{"key":"928_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2019.02.017","volume":"297","author":"N Lucas","year":"2019","unstructured":"Lucas N, Cook M, Kirkbride KP, Kobus H. Gunshot residue background on police officers: Considerations for secondary transfer in GSR evidence evaluation. Forensic Sci Int. 2019;297:293\u2013301.","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Int"},{"key":"928_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2021.111642","volume":"202","author":"C Hoover","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hoover C, Hoover GG, Specht AJ. Firearm licenses associated with elevated pediatric blood lead levels in Massachusetts. Environ Res. 2021;202:111642.","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"928_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2023.115719","volume":"227","author":"C Hoover","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hoover C, Dickerson AS, Specht AJ, Hoover GG. Firearm-related lead exposure and pediatric lead levels in Massachusetts: a decade of evidence (2010\u20132019). Environ Res. 2023;227:115719.","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"928_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hoover C, Fossa AJ, Ranney ML, Hoover GG, Specht AJ, Hemenway D et al. Firearm-related lead exposure and child lead levels in the United States, 2012\u20132018. J Pediatr. 2024; 269. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpeds.2024.113975.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2024.113975"},{"key":"928_CR24","first-page":"24","volume":"46","author":"JM Braun","year":"2017","unstructured":"Braun JM, Kalloo G, Chen A, Dietrich KN, Liddy-Hicks S, Morgan S, et al. Cohort profile: the health outcomes and measures of the environment (HOME) study. Int J Epidemiol. 2017;46:24.","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"key":"928_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e034838","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-034838","volume":"10","author":"JM Braun","year":"2020","unstructured":"Braun JM, Buckley JP, Cecil KM, Chen A, Kalkwarf HJ, Lanphear BP, et al. Adolescent follow-up in the health outcomes and measures of the environment (HOME) study: cohort profile. BMJ Open. 2020;10:e034838.","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"928_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3468(98)90322-0","volume":"33","author":"RA Drongowski","year":"1998","unstructured":"Drongowski RA, Smith SJ, Coran AG, Cullen ML. Firearm ownership in households with children. J Pediatr Surg. 1998;33:589\u201393.","journal-title":"J Pediatr Surg"},{"key":"928_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1007\/s11524-018-0261-7","volume":"95","author":"D Azrael","year":"2018","unstructured":"Azrael D, Cohen J, Salhi C, Miller M. Firearm storage in gun-owning households with children: results of a 2015 national survey. J Urban Health. 2018;95:295\u2013304.","journal-title":"J Urban Health"},{"key":"928_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2016.09.060","volume":"162","author":"DR Jones","year":"2016","unstructured":"Jones DR, Jarrett JM, Tevis DS, Franklin M, Mullinix NJ, Wallon KL, et al. Analysis of whole human blood for Pb, Cd, Hg, Se, and Mn by ICP-DRC-MS for biomonitoring and acute exposures. Talanta. 2016;162:114.","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"928_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-020-1091-3","volume":"90","author":"JM Braun","year":"2021","unstructured":"Braun JM, Yolton K, Newman N, Jacobs DE, Taylor M, Lanphear BP. Residential dust lead levels and the risk of childhood lead poisoning in United States children. Pediatr Res. 2021;90:896\u2013902.","journal-title":"Pediatr Res"},{"key":"928_CR30","unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Method 6020B: Inductively Coupled Plasma\u2013Mass Spectrometry. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste: Washington, DC, 2014. https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2015-12\/documents\/6020b.pdf."},{"key":"928_CR31","unstructured":"Method 7000B: Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste: Washington, DC, 2007. https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2015-12\/documents\/7000b.pdf."},{"key":"928_CR32","unstructured":"RStudio: Integrated Development for R. RStudio, PBC, Boston MA. http:\/\/www.rstudio.com\/ (accessed 24 Apr 2022)."},{"key":"928_CR33","unstructured":"Brown KP Juliana Menasce Horowitz, Ruth Igielnik, J Baxter Oliphant and Anna. 1. The demographics of gun ownership. Pew Research Center. 2017. https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/social-trends\/2017\/06\/22\/the-demographics-of-gun-ownership\/ (accessed 26 Aug 2025)."},{"key":"928_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1136\/ip-2023-044901","volume":"30","author":"RL Sokol","year":"2024","unstructured":"Sokol RL, Lee D, Rowhani-Rahbar A, Pelletier K, Zimmerman M, Carter PM. Associations between experiencing violence, owning a firearm for protection and firearm storage: a nationally representative analysis of US caregivers of teens. Inj Prev. 2024;30:27\u201332.","journal-title":"Inj Prev"},{"key":"928_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1783","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2022.307094","volume":"112","author":"A Rowhani-Rahbar","year":"2022","unstructured":"Rowhani-Rahbar A, Gallagher A, Azrael D, Miller M. Trend in loaded handgun carrying among adult handgun owners in the United States, 2015\u20122019. Am J Public Health. 2022;112:1783\u201390.","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"928_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Densley JA, Pyrooz DC, Peterson JK. Factors associated with secure firearm storage among U.S. gun owners. Am J Prev Med. 2025;69. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.amepre.2025.04.005.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2025.04.005"},{"key":"928_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2148823","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.48823","volume":"5","author":"M Miller","year":"2022","unstructured":"Miller M, Azrael D. Firearm storage in US households with children. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5:e2148823.","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"928_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1177\/00027162231164855","volume":"704","author":"J Berrigan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Berrigan J, Azrael D, Miller M. The number and type of private firearms in the United States. ANNALS Am Acad Political Soc Sci. 2022;704:70\u201390.","journal-title":"ANNALS Am Acad Political Soc Sci"},{"key":"928_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schell TL, Peterson S, Vegetabile BG, Scherling A, Smart R, Morral AR. State-level estimates of household firearm ownership. 2020. https:\/\/www.rand.org\/pubs\/tools\/TL354.html (accessed 8 Apr2026).","DOI":"10.7249\/TL354"},{"key":"928_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2018.304882","volume":"109","author":"J Wertz","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wertz J, Azrael D, Miller M. Americans who become a new versus a former gun owner: implications for youth suicide and unintentional firearm injury. Am J Public Health. 2019;109:212\u2013214.","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"928_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Day M, Braun JM, Hoover C. Cross-sectional associations of self-reported firearm use with blood lead concentrations in a nationally representative cohort of US adults. Environ Epidemiol. 2025;9: e427.","DOI":"10.1097\/EE9.0000000000000427"}],"container-title":["Journal of Exposure Science &amp; Environmental Epidemiology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41370-026-00928-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41370-026-00928-w","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41370-026-00928-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T06:01:49Z","timestamp":1780293709000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41370-026-00928-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]]},"references-count":41,"alternative-id":["928"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41370-026-00928-w","relation":{},"ISSN":["1559-0631","1559-064X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1559-0631","type":"print"},{"value":"1559-064X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]]},"assertion":[{"value":"23 January 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"13 May 2026","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"20 May 2026","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"30 May 2026","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"JMB served as an expert witness for plaintiffs in litigation related to PFAS contaminated drinking water.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}},{"value":"Study protocols were approved by the Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) at the Cincinnati Children\u2019s Hospital Medical Center (CCHMC) and collaborating delivery hospitals. All caregivers provided written informed consent for themselves and their children. All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval"}}]}}