{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T20:25:25Z","timestamp":1793737525923,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790640000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790640000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microsyst Nanoeng"],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-026-01463-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T03:41:52Z","timestamp":1790653312000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A wearable closed-loop insulin micropump toward a miniaturized artificial pancreas for diabetes"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Ziyu","family":"Kuang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiangbin","family":"Kong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tan","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rui","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3815-2029","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhihe","family":"Long","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tianyou","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xianchun","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1379-6813","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xinyu","family":"Xue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhangzhi","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meihua","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"1463_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2017.151","volume":"14","author":"Y Zheng","year":"2018","unstructured":"Zheng, Y., Ley, S. H. & Hu, F. B. Global aetiology and epidemiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus and its complications. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 14, 88\u201398 (2018).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"1463_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2019.107843","volume":"157","author":"P Saeedi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Saeedi, P. et al. Global and regional diabetes prevalence estimates for 2019 and projections for 2030 and 2045: Results from the International Diabetes Federation Diabetes Atlas. Diab. Res. Clin. Pract. 157, 107843 (2019).","journal-title":"Diab. Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"1463_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2021.109119","volume":"183","author":"H Sun","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sun, H. et al. IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global, regional and country-level diabetes prevalence estimates for 2021 and projections for 2045. Diab. Res. Clin. Pract. 183, 109119 (2022).","journal-title":"Diab. Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"1463_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2018.02.023","volume":"138","author":"NH Cho","year":"2018","unstructured":"Cho, N. H. et al. IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global estimates of diabetes prevalence for 2017 and projections for 2045. Diab. Res. Clin. Pract. 138, 271\u2013281 (2018).","journal-title":"Diab. Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"1463_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199309303291401","volume":"329","author":"Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group","year":"1993","unstructured":"Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med. 329, 977\u2013986 (1993).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"1463_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nathan, D. M. DCCT\/Edic Research Group. The diabetes control and complications trial\/epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications study at 30 years: Overview. Diab. Care 37, 9\u201316 (2014).","DOI":"10.2337\/dc13-2112"},{"key":"1463_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-018-4711-2","volume":"62","author":"JL Harding","year":"2019","unstructured":"Harding, J. L. et al. Global trends in diabetes complications: A review of current evidence. Diabetologia 62, 3\u201316 (2019).","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"1463_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.25.3.593","volume":"25","author":"P JC","year":"2002","unstructured":"JC, P. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion at 25 years. Diab. Care 25, 593\u2013598 (2002).","journal-title":"Diab. Care"},{"key":"1463_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-157-5-201209040-00508","volume":"157","author":"HC Yeh","year":"2012","unstructured":"Yeh, H. C. et al. Comparative effectiveness and safety of methods of insulin delivery and glucose monitoring for diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann. Intern. Med. 157, 336\u2013347 (2012).","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"1463_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bekiari, E. et al. Artificial pancreas treatment for outpatients with type 1 diabetes: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 361, k1310 (2018).","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.k1310"},{"key":"1463_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(17)30167-5","volume":"5","author":"A Weisman","year":"2017","unstructured":"Weisman, A. et al. Effect of artificial pancreas systems on glycaemic control in patients with type 1 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of outpatient randomised controlled trials. lancet Diab. Endocrinol. 5, 501\u2013512 (2017).","journal-title":"lancet Diab. Endocrinol."},{"key":"1463_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2019.04.008","volume":"30","author":"B Kovatchev","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kovatchev, B. A century of diabetes technology: Signals, models, and artificial pancreas control. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 30, 432\u2013444 (2019).","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"1463_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1707","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1907863","volume":"381","author":"SA Brown","year":"2019","unstructured":"Brown, S. A. et al. Six-month randomized, multicenter trial of closed-loop control in type 1 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 381, 1707\u20131717 (2019).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"1463_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1407","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.11708","volume":"316","author":"RM Bergenstal","year":"2016","unstructured":"Bergenstal, R. M. et al. Safety of a hybrid closed-loop insulin delivery system in patients with type 1 diabetes. JAMA 316, 1407\u20131408 (2016).","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"1463_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.2337\/dci19-0028","volume":"42","author":"Battelino","year":"2019","unstructured":"Battelino et al. Clinical targets for continuous glucose monitoring data interpretation: Recommendations from the international consensus on time in range. J. Diab. Care 42, 1593\u20131603 (2019).","journal-title":"J. Diab. Care"},{"key":"1463_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2672","DOI":"10.2337\/db11-0654","volume":"60","author":"C Cobelli","year":"2011","unstructured":"Cobelli, C., Renard, E. & Kovatchev, B. Artificial pancreas: Past, present, future. J.]. Diab. 60, 2672\u20132682 (2011).","journal-title":"J.]. Diab."},{"key":"1463_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2018-00174","volume":"40","author":"RA Lal","year":"2019","unstructured":"Lal, R. A. et al. Realizing a closed-loop (artificial pancreas) system for the treatment of type 1 diabetes. Endocr. Rev. 40, 1521\u20131546 (2019).","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"1463_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"714","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296815617968","volume":"10","author":"S Trevitt","year":"2016","unstructured":"Trevitt, S., Simpson, S. & Wood, A. Artificial pancreas device systems for the closed-loop control of type 1 diabetes: What systems are in development? J. Diab. Sci. Technol. 10, 714\u2013723 (2016).","journal-title":"J. Diab. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"1463_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1517\/17425247.2016.1115013","volume":"13","author":"H Thabit","year":"2016","unstructured":"Thabit, H. & Hovorka, R. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion therapy and multiple daily insulin injections in type 1 diabetes mellitus: A comparative overview and future horizons. Expert Opin. Drug Deliv. 13, 389\u2013400 (2016).","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"1463_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-021-05391-w","volume":"64","author":"CK Boughton","year":"2021","unstructured":"Boughton, C. K. & Hovorka, R. New closed-loop insulin systems. Diabetologia 64, 1007\u20131015 (2021).","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"1463_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2016.0421","volume":"19","author":"SK Garg","year":"2017","unstructured":"Garg, S. K. et al. Glucose outcomes with the in-home use of a hybrid closed-loop insulin delivery system in adolescents and adults with type 1 diabetes. Diab. Technol. Ther. 19, 155\u2013163 (2017).","journal-title":"Diab. Technol. Ther."},{"key":"1463_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.2337\/dc16-1536","volume":"40","author":"ML Tanenbaum","year":"2017","unstructured":"Tanenbaum, M. L. et al. Diabetes device use in adults with type 1 diabetes: barriers to uptake and potential intervention targets. Diab. Care 40, 181\u2013187 (2017).","journal-title":"Diab. Care"},{"key":"1463_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12902-018-0239-1","volume":"18","author":"J Lawton","year":"2018","unstructured":"Lawton, J. et al. Patients\u2019 and caregivers\u2019 experiences of using continuous glucose monitoring to support diabetes self-management: qualitative study. BMC Endocr. Disord. 18, 12 (2018).","journal-title":"BMC Endocr. Disord."},{"key":"1463_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Noushin, T. et al. MEMS in Twenty-First-Century Healthcare[M]\/\/Micro-and Nano-Systems in 21st-Century: Designs, Developments, Applications and Perspective. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore: 71\u2013132 (2025).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-96-4659-3_3"},{"key":"1463_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2007.10.064","volume":"130","author":"A Nisar","year":"2008","unstructured":"Nisar, A. et al. MEMS-based micropumps in drug delivery and biomedical applications. Sens. Actuators B: Chem. 130, 917\u2013942 (2008).","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B: Chem."},{"key":"1463_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1720","DOI":"10.1039\/C6LC00163G","volume":"16","author":"N Bhattacharjee","year":"2016","unstructured":"Bhattacharjee, N. et al. The upcoming 3D-printing revolution in microfluidics. Lab Chip 16, 1720\u20131742 (2016).","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"1463_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.4155\/tde.12.132","volume":"3","author":"E Meng","year":"2012","unstructured":"Meng, E. & Hoang, T. Micro-and nano-fabricated implantable drug-delivery systems. Ther. Deliv. 3, 1457\u20131467 (2012).","journal-title":"Ther. Deliv."},{"key":"1463_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2482","DOI":"10.1021\/cr068069y","volume":"108","author":"A Heller","year":"2008","unstructured":"Heller, A. & Feldman, B. Electrochemical glucose sensors and their applications in diabetes management. Chem. Rev. 108, 2482\u20132505 (2008).","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"1463_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1021\/cr068123a","volume":"108","author":"J Wang","year":"2008","unstructured":"Wang, J. Electrochemical glucose biosensors. Chem. Rev. 108, 814\u2013825 (2008).","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"1463_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-chembioeng-060816-101514","volume":"8","author":"MR Prausnitz","year":"2017","unstructured":"Prausnitz, M. R. Engineering microneedle patches for vaccination and drug delivery to skin. Annu. Rev. Chem. Biomol. Eng. 8, 177\u2013200 (2017).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Chem. Biomol. Eng."},{"key":"1463_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8260","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1505405112","volume":"112","author":"J Yu","year":"2015","unstructured":"Yu, J. et al. Microneedle-array patches loaded with hypoxia-sensitive vesicles provide fast glucose-responsive insulin delivery. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 112, 8260\u20138265 (2015).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"1463_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7855","DOI":"10.1021\/cr200027j","volume":"111","author":"Q Wu","year":"2011","unstructured":"Wu, Q. et al. Organization of glucose-responsive systems and their properties. Chem. Rev. 111, 7855\u20137875 (2011).","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"1463_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2016.38","volume":"11","author":"H Lee","year":"2016","unstructured":"Lee, H. et al. A graphene-based electrochemical device with thermoresponsive microneedles for diabetes monitoring and therapy. Nat. Nanotechnol. 11, 566\u2013572 (2016).","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"1463_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-019-0045-y","volume":"37","author":"J Kim","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kim, J. et al. Wearable biosensors for healthcare monitoring. Nat. Biotechnol. 37, 389\u2013406 (2019).","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"1463_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1039\/C7LC00914C","volume":"18","author":"J Heikenfeld","year":"2018","unstructured":"Heikenfeld, J. et al. Wearable sensors: Modalities, challenges, and prospects. Lab Chip 18, 217\u2013248 (2018).","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"1463_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5874","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00040a067","volume":"114","author":"J Yoon","year":"1992","unstructured":"Yoon, J. & Czarnik, A. W. Fluorescent chemosensors of carbohydrates. A means of chemically communicating the binding of polyols in water based on chelation-enhanced quenching. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 114, 5874\u20135875 (1992).","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"1463_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17894","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1006911107","volume":"107","author":"H Shibata","year":"2010","unstructured":"Shibata, H. et al. Injectable hydrogel microbeads for fluorescence-based in vivo continuous glucose monitoring. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 107, 17894\u201317898 (2010).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"1463_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8106","DOI":"10.1039\/c3cs60152h","volume":"42","author":"Y Guan","year":"2013","unstructured":"Guan, Y. & Zhang, Y. Boronic acid-containing hydrogels: synthesis and their applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 42, 8106\u20138121 (2013).","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"1463_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13399","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1104954108","volume":"108","author":"YJ Heo","year":"2011","unstructured":"Heo, Y. J. et al. Long-term in vivo glucose monitoring using fluorescent hydrogel fibers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 108, 13399\u201313403 (2011).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"1463_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcatb.2018.05.041","volume":"236","author":"S Garcia-Segura","year":"2018","unstructured":"Garcia-Segura, S. et al. Electrocatalytic reduction of nitrate: Fundamentals to full-scale water treatment applications. Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 236, 546\u2013568 (2018).","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. B: Environ."},{"key":"1463_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dima G. E., De Vooys A. C. A., Koper M. T. M. Electrocatalyticreduction of nitrate at low concentration on coinage andtransition-metal electrodes in acid solutions. J. Electroanal. Chem. 554\u2013555 (2003).","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0728(02)01443-2"},{"key":"1463_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcatb.2017.02.016","volume":"207","author":"J Mart\u00ednez","year":"2017","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez, J., Ortiz, A. & Ortiz, I. State-of-the-art and perspectives of the catalytic and electrocatalytic reduction of aqueous nitrates. Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 207, 42\u201359 (2017).","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. B: Environ."},{"key":"1463_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors8010010","volume":"8","author":"TT Wang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wang, T. T. et al. Label-free colorimetric detection of urine glucose based on color fading using smartphone ambient-light sensor. Chemosensors 8, 10 (2020).","journal-title":"Chemosensors"},{"key":"1463_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.3390\/bios14060299","volume":"14","author":"A Skonta","year":"2024","unstructured":"Skonta, A. et al. Colorimetric glucose biosensor based on chitosan films and its application for glucose detection in beverages using a smartphone application. Biosensors 14, 299 (2024).","journal-title":"Biosensors"},{"key":"1463_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keenan D. B., Mastrototaro J. J., Voskanyan G., et al. Delays in minimally invasive continuous glucose monitoring devices: a review of current technology. J. Diabetes Sci. Technol. 3, 1207\u20131214 (2009).","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680900300528"}],"container-title":["Microsystems & Nanoengineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41378-026-01463-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41378-026-01463-2","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41378-026-01463-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T03:41:54Z","timestamp":1790653314000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41378-026-01463-2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1463"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41378-026-01463-2","relation":{},"ISSN":["2055-7434"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2055-7434","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]},"assertion":[{"value":"15 June 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 August 2026","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"2 September 2026","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"29 September 2026","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Conflict of interest","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics"}},{"value":"Ethics approval and informed consent were obtained from all participants and the protocol approved by the Ethics Committee for Medical Research and New Medical Technology of Sichuan Cancer Hospital (DW-2026-028).","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethical","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics"}}],"article-number":"335"}}