{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T21:39:09Z","timestamp":1787002749219,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":136,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,28]],"date-time":"2019-11-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1574899200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,28]],"date-time":"2019-11-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1574899200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000057","name":"U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | National Institute of General Medical Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["T32-CM077229"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32-CM077229"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000057","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Transl Psychiatry"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>In 1939, British psychiatrist Lionel Penrose described an inverse relationship between mental health treatment infrastructure and criminal incarcerations. This relationship, later termed the \u2018Penrose Effect\u2019, has proven remarkably predictive of modern trends which have manifested as reciprocal components, referred to as \u2018deinstitutionalization\u2019 and \u2018mass incarceration\u2019. In this review, we consider how a third dynamic\u2014the criminalization of addiction via the \u2018War on Drugs\u2019, although unanticipated by Penrose, has likely amplified the Penrose Effect over the last 30 years, with devastating social, economic, and healthcare consequences. We discuss how synergy been the Penrose Effect and the War on Drugs has been mediated by, and reflects, a fundamental neurobiological connection between the brain diseases of mental illness and addiction. This neuroscience of dual diagnosis, also not anticipated by Penrose, is still not being adequately translated into improving clinical training, practice, or research, to treat patients across the mental illness-addictions comorbidity spectrum. This failure in translation, and the ongoing fragmentation and collapse of behavioral healthcare, has worsened the epidemic of untreated mental illness and addictions, while driving unsustainable government investment into mass incarceration and high-cost medical care that profits too exclusively on injuries and multi-organ diseases resulting from untreated addictions. Reversing the fragmentation and decline of behavioral healthcare with decisive action to co-integrate mental health and addiction training, care, and research\u2014may be key to ending criminalization of mental illness and addiction, and refocusing the healthcare system on keeping the population healthy at the lowest possible cost.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-019-0661-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,28]],"date-time":"2019-11-28T06:03:08Z","timestamp":1574920988000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["The Penrose Effect and its acceleration by the war on drugs: a crisis of untranslated neuroscience and untreated addiction and mental illness"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0700-8633","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gregory G.","family":"Grecco","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"R.","family":"Andrew Chambers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"661_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)31612-X","volume":"392","author":"V Patel","year":"2018","unstructured":"Patel, V. et al. The Lancet Commission on global mental health and sustainable development. Lancet 392, 1553\u20131598 (2018).","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"661_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1130","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2015.1659","volume":"35","author":"C Roehrig","year":"2016","unstructured":"Roehrig, C. Mental disorders top the list of the most costly conditions in the United States: $201 billion. Health Aff. 35, 1130\u20131135 (2016).","journal-title":"Health Aff."},{"key":"661_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2627","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.16885","volume":"316","author":"JL Dieleman","year":"2016","unstructured":"Dieleman, J. L. et al. US spending on personal health care and public health, 1996\u20132013. JAMA 316, 2627\u20132646 (2016).","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"661_CR4","unstructured":"Hedegaard, H., Curtin, S. C. & Warner, M. Suicide Mortality in the United States, 1999\u20132017. NCHS Data Brief, no. 330 (National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD, 2018)."},{"key":"661_CR5","unstructured":"CDC. Opioid Overdose: Understanding the Epidemic Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2018)."},{"key":"661_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1905","DOI":"10.1111\/add.14234","volume":"113","author":"A Peacock","year":"2018","unstructured":"Peacock, A. et al. Global statistics on alcohol, tobacco and illicit drug use: 2017 status report. Addiction 113, 1905\u20131926 (2018).","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"661_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2207","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1993.03510180077038","volume":"270","author":"JM McGinnis","year":"1993","unstructured":"McGinnis, J. M. & Foege, W. H. Actual causes of death in the United States. JAMA 270, 2207\u20132212 (1993).","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"661_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.291.10.1238","volume":"291","author":"AH Mokdad","year":"2004","unstructured":"Mokdad, A. H., Marks, J. S., Stroup, D. F. & Gerberding, J. L. Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000. JAMA 291, 1238\u20131245 (2004).","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"661_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8341.1939.tb00704.x","volume":"18","author":"LS Penrose","year":"1939","unstructured":"Penrose, L. S. Mental disease and crime: outline of a comparative study of European statistics. Br. J. Med. Psychol. 18, 1\u201315 (1939).","journal-title":"Br. J. Med. Psychol."},{"key":"661_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.1097\/00005053-199611000-00010","volume":"184","author":"GN Conacher","year":"1996","unstructured":"Conacher, G. N. Psychiatric hospital downsizing and the Penrose effect. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 184, 708\u2013710 (1996).","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"issue":"Part 1","key":"661_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1348\/147608308X320099","volume":"82","author":"MM Large","year":"2009","unstructured":"Large, M. M. & Nielssen, O. The Penrose hypothesis in 2004: patient and prisoner numbers are positively correlated in low-and-middle income countries but are unrelated in high-income countries. Psychol. Psychother. 82(Part 1), 113\u2013119 (2009).","journal-title":"Psychol. Psychother."},{"key":"661_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.176.4.332","volume":"176","author":"J Gunn","year":"2000","unstructured":"Gunn, J. Future directions for treatment in forensic psychiatry. Br. J. Psychiatry 176, 332\u2013338 (2000).","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0142163","volume":"10","author":"V Bl\u00fcml","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bl\u00fcml, V., Waldh\u00f6r, T., Kapusta, N. D. & Vyssoki, B. Psychiatric hospital bed numbers and prison population sizes in 26 European countries: a critical reconsideration of the penrose hypothesis. PLoS ONE 10, e0142163 (2015).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"6","key":"661_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e38490","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0038490","volume":"7","author":"Adrian P. Mundt","year":"2012","unstructured":"Mundt, A. P. et al. Changes in the provision of institutionalized mental health care in post-communist countries. PLoS ONE 7, e38490 (2012).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"661_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.52.8.1039","volume":"52","author":"HR Lamb","year":"2001","unstructured":"Lamb, H. R. & Bachrach, L. L. Some perspectives on deinstitutionalization. Psychiatr. Serv. 52, 1039\u20131045 (2001).","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"661_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.162.5.587","volume":"162","author":"HR Lamb","year":"1993","unstructured":"Lamb, H. R. Lessons learned from deinstitutionalisation in the US. Br. J. Psychiatry 162, 587\u2013592 (1993).","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1126\/science.179.4070.250","volume":"179","author":"DL Rosenhan","year":"1973","unstructured":"Rosenhan, D. L. On being sane in insane places. Science 179, 250\u2013258 (1973).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"661_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1447-0349.2010.00726.x","volume":"20","author":"A Hamden","year":"2011","unstructured":"Hamden, A., Newton, R., McCauley-Elsom, K. & Cross, W. Is deinstitutionalization working in our community? Int. J. Ment. Health Nurs. 20, 274\u2013283 (2011).","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Nurs."},{"key":"661_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.bp.114.161943","volume":"208","author":"P Winkler","year":"2016","unstructured":"Winkler, P. et al. Deinstitutionalised patients, homelessness and imprisonment: systematic review. Br. J. Psychiatry 208, 421\u2013428 (2016).","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2014.2433","volume":"72","author":"AP Mundt","year":"2015","unstructured":"Mundt, A. P. et al. Psychiatric hospital beds and prison populations in South America since 1990: does the Penrose hypothesis apply? JAMA Psychiatry 72, 112\u2013118 (2015).","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1953","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2014.4578","volume":"311","author":"BM Kuehn","year":"2014","unstructured":"Kuehn, B. M. Criminal justice becomes front line for mental health care. JAMA 311, 1953\u20131954 (2014).","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"661_CR22","first-page":"529","volume":"33","author":"HR Lamb","year":"2005","unstructured":"Lamb, H. R. & Weinberger, L. E. The shift of psychiatric inpatient care from hospitals to jails and prisons. J. Am. Acad. Psychiatry Law Online 33, 529\u2013534 (2005).","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Psychiatry Law Online"},{"key":"661_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1266","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.53.10.1266","volume":"53","author":"HR Lamb","year":"2002","unstructured":"Lamb, H. R., Weinberger, L. E. & DeCuir, W. J. Jr The police and mental health. Psychiatr. Serv. 53, 1266\u20131271 (2002).","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"661_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.2006.00042.x","volume":"44","author":"FE Markowitz","year":"2006","unstructured":"Markowitz, F. E. Psychiatric hospital capacity, homelessness, and crime and arrest rates. Criminology 44, 45\u201372 (2006).","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"key":"661_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1080\/08039480802298697","volume":"63","author":"P Hartvig","year":"2009","unstructured":"Hartvig, P. & Kjelsberg, E. Penrose\u2019s Law revisited: The relationship between mental institution beds, prison population and crime rate. Nord. J. Psychiatry 63, 51\u201356 (2009).","journal-title":"Nord. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1895","DOI":"10.1556\/OH.2007.28154","volume":"148","author":"MP Kalapos","year":"2007","unstructured":"Kalapos, M. P. Our social dilemma: prison or psychiatric hospital? Is the Penrose thesis valid for Hungary at the turn of the millennium? Orv. Hetil. 148, 1895\u20131898 (2007).","journal-title":"Orv. Hetil."},{"key":"661_CR27","first-page":"373","volume":"100","author":"BD Kelly","year":"2007","unstructured":"Kelly, B. D. Penrose\u2019s Law in Ireland: an ecological analysis of psychiatric inpatients and prisoners. Ir. Med. J. 100, 373\u2013374 (2007).","journal-title":"Ir. Med. J."},{"key":"661_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1080\/08039488.2017.1351579","volume":"71","author":"A J\u00fcriloo","year":"2017","unstructured":"J\u00fcriloo, A., Pesonen, L. & Lauerma, H. Knocking on prison\u2019s door: a 10-fold rise in the number of psychotic prisoners in Finland during the years 2005\u20132016. Nord. J. Psychiatry 71, 543\u2013548 (2017).","journal-title":"Nord. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1176\/ps.2008.59.5.570","volume":"59","author":"S Priebe","year":"2008","unstructured":"Priebe, S. et al. Mental health care institutions in nine European countries, 2002 to 2006. Psychiatr. Serv. 59, 570\u2013573 (2008).","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"661_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.38296.611215.AE","volume":"330","author":"S Priebe","year":"2005","unstructured":"Priebe, S. et al. Reinstitutionalisation in mental health care: comparison of data on service provision from six European countries. BMJ 330, 123\u2013126 (2005).","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"661_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.bjc.a046465","volume":"13","author":"D Biles","year":"1973","unstructured":"Biles, D. & Mulligan, G. Mad or bad?\u2014The enduring dilemma. Br. J. Criminol. 13, 275\u2013279 (1973).","journal-title":"Br. J. Criminol."},{"key":"661_CR32","first-page":"81","volume":"16","author":"J Yoon","year":"2013","unstructured":"Yoon, J., Domino, M. E., Norton, E. C., Cuddeback, G. S. & Morrissey, J. P. The impact of changes in psychiatric bed supply on jail use by persons with severe mental illness. J. Ment. Health Policy Econ. 16, 81\u201392 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Ment. Health Policy Econ."},{"key":"661_CR33","unstructured":"Raphael, S. The deinstitutionalization of the mentally ill and growth in the US prison populations: 1971 to 1996. Unpublished manuscript. (2000)."},{"key":"661_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1177\/0306624X9103500202","volume":"35","author":"GB Palermo","year":"1991","unstructured":"Palermo, G. B., Smith, M. B. & Liska, F. J. Jails versus mental hospitals: a social dilemma. Int. J. Offender Ther. Comp. Criminol. 35, 97\u2013106 (1991).","journal-title":"Int. J. Offender Ther. Comp. Criminol."},{"key":"661_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.2307\/1143164","volume":"75","author":"HJ Steadman","year":"1984","unstructured":"Steadman, H. J., Monahan, J., Duffee, B. & Hartstone, E. The impact of state mental hospital deinstitutionalization on United States prison populations, 1968\u20131978. J. Crim. Law Criminol. 75, 474 (1984).","journal-title":"J. Crim. Law Criminol."},{"key":"661_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1108\/03068290710826396","volume":"34","author":"A Ceccherini-Nelli","year":"2007","unstructured":"Ceccherini-Nelli, A. & Priebe, S. Economic factors and psychiatric hospital beds\u2013an analysis of historical trends. Int. J. Soc. Econ. 34, 788\u2013810 (2007).","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Econ."},{"key":"661_CR37","first-page":"287","volume":"41","author":"HR Lamb","year":"2013","unstructured":"Lamb, H. R. & Weinberger, L. E. Some perspectives on criminalization. J. Am. Acad. Psychiatry Law 41, 287\u2013293 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Psychiatry Law"},{"key":"661_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1017\/S1092852914000753","volume":"20","author":"EF Torrey","year":"2015","unstructured":"Torrey, E. F. Deinstitutionalization and the rise of violence. CNS Spectr. 20, 207\u2013214 (2015).","journal-title":"CNS Spectr."},{"key":"661_CR39","unstructured":"Torrey, E. F. et al. The treatment of persons with mental illness in prisons and jails: a state survey (Treatment Advocacy Center, 2014)."},{"key":"661_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1177\/0887403403255064","volume":"15","author":"S Hartwell","year":"2004","unstructured":"Hartwell, S. Triple stigma: Persons with mental illness and substance abuse problems in the criminal justice system. Crim. Justice Policy Rev. 15, 84\u201399 (2004).","journal-title":"Crim. Justice Policy Rev."},{"key":"661_CR41","first-page":"16","volume":"1","author":"PW Corrigan","year":"2002","unstructured":"Corrigan, P. W. & Watson, A. C. Understanding the impact of stigma on people with mental illness. World Psychiatry 1, 16 (2002).","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2014.14060712","volume":"171","author":"DR Rubinow","year":"2014","unstructured":"Rubinow, D. R. Out of sight, out of mind: mental illness behind bars. Am. J. Psychiatry 171, 1041\u20131044 (2014).","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2005.079152","volume":"96","author":"MS Parry","year":"2006","unstructured":"Parry, M. S. Dorothea Dix (1802\u20131887). Am. J. Public Health 96, 624\u2013625 (2006).","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"661_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1177\/1362480612441700","volume":"16","author":"M Lynch","year":"2012","unstructured":"Lynch, M. Theorizing the role of the \u2018War on Drugs\u2019 in US punishment. Theor. Criminol. 16, 175\u2013199 (2012).","journal-title":"Theor. Criminol."},{"key":"661_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.3109\/10826084.2015.1007669","volume":"50","author":"HL Cooper","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cooper, H. L. War on drugs policing and police brutality. Subst. Use Misuse 50, 1188\u20131194 (2015).","journal-title":"Subst. Use Misuse"},{"key":"661_CR46","unstructured":"Coyne, C. J. & Hall, A. Four Decades and Counting: The Continued Failure of the War on Drugs Cato Institute Policy Analysis No. 811 (2017)."},{"key":"661_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1427","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)00619-X","volume":"387","author":"J Csete","year":"2016","unstructured":"Csete, J. et al. Public health and international drug policy. Lancet 387, 1427\u20131480 (2016).","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"661_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2010.02926.x","volume":"105","author":"W Hall","year":"2010","unstructured":"Hall, W. What are the policy lessons of National Alcohol Prohibition in the United States, 1920\u20131933? Addiction 105, 1164\u20131173 (2010).","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"661_CR49","unstructured":"Thornton M. Cato Institute Policy Analysis no. 157: Alcohol Prohibition was a Failure (Cato Institute, 1991)."},{"key":"661_CR50","unstructured":"Wagner, P. & Rabuy, B. Following the money of mass incarceration. Prison Policy Initiative (2017)."},{"key":"661_CR51","unstructured":"Balko, R. Overkill: the rise of paramilitary police raids in America (2006)."},{"key":"661_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1177\/0887403403255315","volume":"15","author":"EL Jensen","year":"2004","unstructured":"Jensen, E. L., Gerber, J. & Mosher, C. Social consequences of the war on drugs: the legacy of failed policy. Crim. Justice Policy Rev. 15, 100\u2013121 (2004).","journal-title":"Crim. Justice Policy Rev."},{"key":"661_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)62226-6","volume":"383","author":"D Hanahan","year":"2014","unstructured":"Hanahan, D. Rethinking the war on cancer. Lancet 383, 558\u2013563 (2014).","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"661_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1252","DOI":"10.1593\/neo.91866","volume":"11","author":"A Rehemtulla","year":"2009","unstructured":"Rehemtulla, A. The war on cancer rages on. Neoplasia 11, 1252\u20131263 (2009).","journal-title":"Neoplasia"},{"key":"661_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2011.02.002","volume":"22","author":"D Werb","year":"2011","unstructured":"Werb, D. et al. Effect of drug law enforcement on drug market violence: a systematic review. Int. J. Drug Policy 22, 87\u201394 (2011).","journal-title":"Int. J. Drug Policy"},{"key":"661_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)60958-0","volume":"376","author":"E Wood","year":"2010","unstructured":"Wood, E. et al. Vienna Declaration: a call for evidence-based drug policies. Lancet 376, 310\u2013312 (2010).","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"661_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)60455-4","volume":"373","author":"E Wood","year":"2009","unstructured":"Wood, E., Werb, D., Marshall, B. D., Montaner, J. S. & Kerr, T. The war on drugs: a devastating public-policy disaster. Lancet 373, 989\u2013990 (2009).","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"661_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2008.976","volume":"301","author":"RK Chandler","year":"2009","unstructured":"Chandler, R. K., Fletcher, B. W. & Volkow, N. D. Treating drug abuse and addiction in the criminal justice system: improving public health and safety. JAMA 301, 183\u2013190 (2009).","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"661_CR59","first-page":"173","volume":"52","author":"JF Pfaff","year":"2015","unstructured":"Pfaff, J. F. The war on drugs and prison growth: limited importance, limited legislative options. Harv. J. Legis. 52, 173 (2015).","journal-title":"Harv. J. Legis."},{"key":"661_CR60","unstructured":"Collins, J. Ending the Drug Wars: Report of the LSE Expert Group on the Economics of Drug Policy (London School of Economics, London, 2014)."},{"key":"661_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1177\/070674370705200305","volume":"52","author":"C Els","year":"2007","unstructured":"Els, C. Addiction is a mental disorder, best managed in a (public) mental health setting\u2014but our system is failing us. Can. J. Psychiatry 52, 167\u2013169 (2007).","journal-title":"Can. J. Psychiatry"},{"issue":"3","key":"661_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1080\/15504263.2013.807072","volume":"9","author":"R. Andrew Chambers","year":"2013","unstructured":"Chambers R. A. The addiction psychiatrist as dual diagnosis physician: a profession in great need and greatly needed. J. Dual Diagn. 9, 260\u2013266 (2013).","journal-title":"Journal of Dual Diagnosis"},{"key":"661_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1007\/s40429-015-0074-7","volume":"2","author":"MS Greene","year":"2015","unstructured":"Greene, M. S. & Chambers, R. A. Pseudoaddiction: fact or fiction? An investigation of the medical literature. Curr. Addict. Rep. 2, 310\u2013317 (2015).","journal-title":"Curr. Addict. Rep."},{"key":"661_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2015.1653","volume":"35","author":"CL Barry","year":"2016","unstructured":"Barry, C. L., Goldman, H. H. & Huskamp, H. A. Federal parity in the evolving mental health and addiction care landscape. Health Aff. 35, 1009\u20131016 (2016).","journal-title":"Health Aff."},{"key":"661_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1111\/1475-6773.12614","volume":"53","author":"SA Friedman","year":"2018","unstructured":"Friedman, S. A. et al. The Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act evaluation study: impact on mental health financial requirements among commercial \u201ccarve\u2010in\u201d plans. Health Serv. Res. 53, 366\u2013388 (2018).","journal-title":"Health Serv. Res."},{"key":"661_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1080\/08897077.2016.1187240","volume":"37","author":"SE Wakeman","year":"2016","unstructured":"Wakeman, S. E., Pham-Kanter, G. & Donelan, K. Attitudes, practices, and preparedness to care for patients with substance use disorder: results from a survey of general internists. Subst. Abus. 37, 635\u2013641 (2016).","journal-title":"Subst. Abus."},{"key":"661_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(01)01134-9","volume":"50","author":"RA Chambers","year":"2001","unstructured":"Chambers, R. A., Krystal, J. H. & Self, D. W. A neurobiological basis for substance abuse comorbidity in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 50, 71\u201383 (2001).","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR68","first-page":"33","volume":"16","author":"KJ Hartwell","year":"2009","unstructured":"Hartwell, K. J., Tolliver, B. K. & Brady, K. T. Biologic commonalities between mental illness and addiction. Prim. Psychiatry 16, 33\u201339 (2009).","journal-title":"Prim. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad6469","volume":"359","author":"MJ Gandal","year":"2018","unstructured":"Gandal, M. J. et al. Shared molecular neuropathology across major psychiatric disorders parallels polygenic overlap. Science 359, 693\u2013697 (2018).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"661_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sentir, A. M., Bell, R. L., Engleman, E. A. & Chambers, R. A. Polysubstance addiction vulnerability in mental illness: concurrent alcohol and nicotine self\u2010administration in the neurodevelopmental hippocampal lesion rat model of schizophrenia. Addict. Biol. 1\u201320 (2018).","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12704"},{"key":"661_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-3797(98)00017-8","volume":"14","author":"VJ Felitti","year":"1998","unstructured":"Felitti, V. J. et al. Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. Am. J. Preventive Med. 14, 245\u2013258 (1998).","journal-title":"Am. J. Preventive Med."},{"key":"661_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2017.4602","volume":"75","author":"DS Hasin","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hasin, D. S. et al. Epidemiology of adult DSM-5 major depressive disorder and its specifiers in the United States. JAMA Psychiatry 75, 336\u2013346 (2018).","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2015.0584","volume":"72","author":"BF Grant","year":"2015","unstructured":"Grant, B. F. et al. Epidemiology of DSM-5 alcohol use disorder: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions III. JAMA Psychiatry 72, 757\u2013766 (2015).","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2015.2132","volume":"73","author":"BF Grant","year":"2016","unstructured":"Grant, B. F. et al. Epidemiology of DSM-5 drug use disorder: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions-III. JAMA Psychiatry 73, 39\u201347 (2016).","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4603(98)00073-2","volume":"23","author":"KT Mueser","year":"1998","unstructured":"Mueser, K. T., Drake, R. E. & Wallach, M. A. Dual diagnosis: a review of etiological theories. Addict. Behav. 23, 717\u2013734 (1998).","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"661_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1097\/WNF.0b013e318261e193","volume":"35","author":"S Ross","year":"2012","unstructured":"Ross, S. & Peselow, E. Co-occurring psychotic and addictive disorders: neurobiology and diagnosis. Clin. Neuropharmacol. 35, 235\u2013243 (2012).","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"661_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.201300408","volume":"65","author":"A Luciano","year":"2014","unstructured":"Luciano, A. et al. Predictors of incarceration among urban adults with co-occurring severe mental illness and a substance use disorder. Psychiatr. Serv. 65, 1325\u20131331 (2014).","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"661_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1300\/J374v03n02_04","volume":"3","author":"RA Chambers","year":"2007","unstructured":"Chambers, R. A. Animal modeling and neurocircuitry of dual diagnosis. J. Dual Diagnosis 3, 19\u201329 (2007).","journal-title":"J. Dual Diagnosis"},{"key":"661_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2012.12.005","volume":"130","author":"RA Chambers","year":"2013","unstructured":"Chambers, R. A. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis in the pathogenesis of addiction and dual diagnosis disorders. Drug Alcohol Depend. 130, 1\u201312 (2013).","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"661_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"s93","DOI":"10.1016\/S0920-9964(98)00161-3","volume":"35","author":"L Dixon","year":"1999","unstructured":"Dixon, L. Dual diagnosis of substance abuse in schizophrenia: prevalence and impact on outcomes. Schizophrenia Res. 35, s93\u2013s100 (1999).","journal-title":"Schizophrenia Res."},{"issue":"Suppl. 7","key":"661_CR81","first-page":"5","volume":"67","author":"PF Buckley","year":"2006","unstructured":"Buckley, P. F. Prevalence and consequences of the dual diagnosis of substance abuse and severe mental illness. J. Clin. Psychiatry 67(Suppl. 7), 5\u20139 (2006).","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2606","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.284.20.2606","volume":"284","author":"K Lasser","year":"2000","unstructured":"Lasser, K. et al. Smoking and mental illness: a population-based prevalence study. JAMA 284, 2606\u20132610 (2000).","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"661_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.3122\/jabfm.2017.04.170112","volume":"30","author":"MA Davis","year":"2017","unstructured":"Davis, M. A., Lin, L. A., Liu, H. & Sites, B. D. Prescription opioid use among adults with mental health disorders in the United States. J. Am. Board Fam. Med. 30, 407\u2013417 (2017).","journal-title":"J. Am. Board Fam. Med."},{"key":"661_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2511","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1990.03450190043026","volume":"264","author":"DA Regier","year":"1990","unstructured":"Regier, D. A. et al. Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drugs of abuse. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 264, 2511\u20132518 (1990).","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"661_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2004.06.034","volume":"56","author":"RC Kessler","year":"2004","unstructured":"Kessler, R. C. The epidemiology of dual diagnosis. Biol. Psychiatry 56, 730\u2013737 (2004).","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hunt, G. E., Large, M. M., Cleary, M., Lai, H. M. X. & Saunders, J. B. Prevalence of comorbid substance use in schizophrenia spectrum disorders in community and clinical settings, 1990\u20132017: systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend. 234\u2013258 (2018).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2018.07.011"},{"key":"661_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.61.8.807","volume":"61","author":"BF Grant","year":"2004","unstructured":"Grant, B. F. et al. Prevalence and co-occurrence of substance use disorders and independent mood and anxiety disorders: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61, 807\u2013816 (2004).","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.61.11.1107","volume":"61","author":"BF Grant","year":"2004","unstructured":"Grant, B. F., Hasin, D. S., Chou, S. P., Stinson, F. S. & Dawson, D. A. Nicotine dependence and psychiatric disorders in the United States: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on alcohol and related conditions. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61, 1107\u20131115 (2004).","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1776","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2010.03052.x","volume":"105","author":"JA Boscarino","year":"2010","unstructured":"Boscarino, J. A. et al. Risk factors for drug dependence among out-patients on opioid therapy in a large US health-care system. Addiction 105, 1776\u20131782 (2010).","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"661_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2013.01.010","volume":"132","author":"C Katz","year":"2013","unstructured":"Katz, C., El-Gabalawy, R., Keyes, K. M., Martins, S. S. & Sareen, J. Risk factors for incident nonmedical prescription opioid use and abuse and dependence: results from a longitudinal nationally representative sample. Drug Alcohol Depend. 132, 107\u2013113 (2013).","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"661_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.14m09020","volume":"75","author":"DT Hackman","year":"2014","unstructured":"Hackman, D. T. et al. Prescription drug monitoring program inquiry in psychiatric assessment: detection of high rates of opioid prescribing to a dual diagnosis population. J. Clin. Psychiatry 75, 750\u2013756 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2007.04.005","volume":"31","author":"RA Chambers","year":"2007","unstructured":"Chambers, R. A., Bickel, W. K. & Potenza, M. N. A scale-free systems theroy of motivation and addiction. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 31, 1017\u20131045 (2007).","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"661_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1016\/0301-0082(94)90025-6","volume":"42","author":"CMA Pennartz","year":"1994","unstructured":"Pennartz, C. M. A., Groenewegen, H. J., Lopez & da Silva, F. H. The nucleus accumbens as a complex of functionally distinct neuronal ensembles: an integration of behavioral, electrophysiological and anatomical data. Prog. Neurobiol. 42, 719\u2013761 (1994).","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"661_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1111\/gbb.12051","volume":"12","author":"RA Chambers","year":"2013","unstructured":"Chambers, R. A. et al. Cortical\u2013striatal gene expression in neonatal hippocampal lesion (NVHL)\u2010amplified cocaine sensitization. Genes Brain Behav. 12, 564\u2013575 (2013).","journal-title":"Genes Brain Behav."},{"key":"661_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2009.09.006","volume":"67","author":"RA Chambers","year":"2010","unstructured":"Chambers, R. A., Sentir, A. M., Conroy, S. K., Truitt, W. A. & Shekhar, A. Cortical\u2013striatal integration of cocaine history and prefrontal dysfunction in animal modeling of dual diagnosis. Biol. Psychiatry 67, 788\u2013792 (2010).","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2004.04.009","volume":"46","author":"TP Sheehan","year":"2004","unstructured":"Sheehan, T. P., Chambers, R. A. & Russell, D. S. Regulation of affect by the lateral septum: implications for neuropsychiatry. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 46, 71\u2013117 (2004).","journal-title":"Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"661_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2016.06.003","volume":"81","author":"LJ Boulos","year":"2017","unstructured":"Boulos, L. J., Darcq, E. & Kieffer, B. L. Translating the Habenula\u2014from rodents to humans. Biol. Psychiatry 81, 296\u2013305 (2017).","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-014-9246-9","volume":"24","author":"PG Gasquoine","year":"2014","unstructured":"Gasquoine, P. G. Contributions of the insula to cognition and emotion. Neuropsychol. Rev. 24, 77\u201387 (2014).","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"661_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2016.00149","volume":"7","author":"CE Carey","year":"2016","unstructured":"Carey, C. E. et al. Associations between polygenic risk for psychiatric disorders and substance involvement. Front. Genet. 7, 149 (2016).","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"661_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.60.9.929","volume":"60","author":"KS Kendler","year":"2003","unstructured":"Kendler, K. S., Prescott, C. A., Myers, J. & Neale, M. C. The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for common psychiatric and substance use disorders in men and women. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 60, 929\u2013937 (2003).","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.b.31196","volume":"156","author":"R Olvera","year":"2011","unstructured":"Olvera, R. et al. Common genetic influences on depression, alcohol, and substance use disorders in Mexican\u2010American families. Am. J. Med. Genet. Part B 156, 561\u2013568 (2011).","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Genet. Part B"},{"key":"661_CR102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpsy.2013.10.001","volume":"29","author":"N Carmiol","year":"2014","unstructured":"Carmiol, N. et al. Shared genetic factors influence risk for bipolar disorder and alcohol use disorders. Eur. Psychiatry 29, 282\u2013287 (2014).","journal-title":"Eur. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.57.8.803","volume":"57","author":"CA Prescott","year":"2000","unstructured":"Prescott, C. A., Aggen, S. H. & Kendler, K. S. Sex-specific genetic influences on the comorbidity of alcoholism and major depression in a population-based sample of US twins. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57, 803\u2013811 (2000).","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walters R. K., et al. Trans-ancestral GWAS of alcohol dependence reveals common genetic underpinnings with psychiatric disorders. Nature Neuroscience 21, 1656\u20131669 (2018).","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-018-0275-1"},{"key":"661_CR105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.bp.110.080499","volume":"197","author":"RC Kessler","year":"2010","unstructured":"Kessler, R. C. et al. Childhood adversities and adult psychopathology in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. Br. J. Psychiatry 197, 378\u2013385 (2010).","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2014.680","volume":"71","author":"NT Van Dam","year":"2014","unstructured":"Van Dam, N. T., Rando, K., Potenza, M. N., Tuit, K. & Sinha, R. Childhood maltreatment, altered limbic neurobiology, and substance use relapse severity via trauma-specific reductions in limbic gray matter volume. JAMA Psychiatry 71, 917\u2013925 (2014).","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zarse, E. M. et al. The adverse childhood experiences questionnaire: two decades of research on childhood trauma as a primary cause of adult mental illness, addiction, and medical diseases. Cogent Med. 1\u201324 (2019).","DOI":"10.1080\/2331205X.2019.1581447"},{"key":"661_CR108","unstructured":"Chambers R. A. The 2\u2009\u00d7\u20094 Model: A Neuroscience-Based Blueprint for the Modern Integrated Addiction and Mental Health Treatment System 1st edn (Routledge: CRC Press, New York, NY, 2017)."},{"key":"661_CR109","first-page":"388","volume":"28","author":"TM Kelly","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kelly, T. M. & Daley, D. C. Integrated treatment of substance use and psychiatric disorders. Soc Work. Public Health 28, 388\u2013406 (2013).","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"661_CR110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2004.10.002","volume":"56","author":"CP O Brien","year":"2004","unstructured":"O Brien, C. P. et al. Priority actions to improve the care of persons with co-occurring substance abuse and other mental disorders: a call to action. Biol. Psychiatry 56, 703\u2013713 (2004).","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1007\/s10488-012-0449-1","volume":"41","author":"MP McGovern","year":"2014","unstructured":"McGovern, M. P., Lambert-Harris, C., Gotham, H. J., Claus, R. E. & Xie, H. Dual diagnosis capability in mental health and addiction treatment services: an assessment of programs across multiple state systems. Adm. Policy Ment. Health 41, 205\u2013214 (2014).","journal-title":"Adm. Policy Ment. Health"},{"key":"661_CR112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1126","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.51.9.1126","volume":"51","author":"RE Drake","year":"2000","unstructured":"Drake, R. E. & Wallach, M. A. Dual diagnosis: 15 years of progress. Psychiatr. Serv. 51, 1126\u20131129 (2000).","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"661_CR113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2452","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pain.0000000000000650","volume":"157","author":"BT Halbert","year":"2016","unstructured":"Halbert, B. T., Davis, R. B. & Wee, C. C. Disproportionate longer-term opioid use among U.S. adults with mood disorders. Pain 157, 2452\u20132457 (2016).","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"661_CR114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1097\/AJP.0000000000000603","volume":"34","author":"MD Sullivan","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sullivan, M. D. Depression effects on long-term prescription opioid use, abuse, and addiction. Clin. J. Pain 34, 878\u2013884 (2018).","journal-title":"Clin. J. Pain"},{"key":"661_CR115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2018.0558","volume":"1","author":"TNA Winkelman","year":"2018","unstructured":"Winkelman, T. N. A., Chang, V. W. & Binswanger, I. A. Health, polysubstance use, and criminal justice involvement among adults with varying levels of opioid use. JAMA Netw. Open 1, e180558 (2018).","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"661_CR116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijlp.2018.02.002","volume":"58","author":"JD Prince","year":"2018","unstructured":"Prince, J. D. & Wald, C. Risk of criminal justice system involvement among people with co-occurring severe mental illness and substance use disorder. Int. J. Law Psychiatry 58, 1\u20138 (2018).","journal-title":"Int. J. Law Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.161.4.716","volume":"161","author":"C Wallace","year":"2004","unstructured":"Wallace, C., Mullen, P. E. & Burgess, P. Criminal offending in schizophrenia over a 25-year period marked by deinstitutionalization and increasing prevalence of comorbid substance use disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 161, 716\u2013727 (2004).","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1177\/0011128706288054","volume":"53","author":"JA Swartz","year":"2007","unstructured":"Swartz, J. A. & Lurigio, A. J. Serious mental illness and arrest: the generalized mediating effect of substance use. Crime Delinquency 53, 581\u2013604 (2007).","journal-title":"Crime Delinquency"},{"key":"661_CR119","unstructured":"Wagner, P. & Rabuy, B. Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2016. Prison Policy Initiative. 119, 1\u201323 (2017)."},{"key":"661_CR120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peters, R. H., Wexler, H. K. & Lurigio A. J. Co-occurring substance use and mental disorders in the criminal justice system: a new frontier of clinical practice and research. Psychiatr. Rehabil. J. 38, 1\u20136 (2015).","DOI":"10.1037\/prj0000135"},{"key":"661_CR121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)62338-2","volume":"386","author":"JD Rich","year":"2015","unstructured":"Rich, J. D. et al. Methadone continuation versus forced withdrawal on incarceration in a combined US prison and jail: a randomised, open-label trial. Lancet 386, 350\u2013359 (2015).","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"661_CR122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1080\/10550887.2015.1059217","volume":"34","author":"SE Wakeman","year":"2015","unstructured":"Wakeman, S. E. & Rich, J. D. Addiction treatment within U.S. Correctional facilities: bridging the gap between current practice and evidence-based care. J. Addict. Dis. 34, 220\u2013225 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Addict. Dis."},{"key":"661_CR123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1668","volume":"9","author":"AM Stranahan","year":"2006","unstructured":"Stranahan, A. M., Khalil, D. & Gould, E. Social isolation delays the positive effects of running on adult neurogenesis. Nat. Neurosci. 9, 526\u2013533 (2006).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"661_CR124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-017-4257-0","volume":"17","author":"T Al-Rousan","year":"2017","unstructured":"Al-Rousan, T., Rubenstein, L., Sieleni, B., Deol, H. & Wallace, R. B. Inside the nation\u2019s largest mental health institution: a prevalence study in a state prison system. BMC Public Health 17, 342 (2017).","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"661_CR125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2081","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1102385","volume":"364","author":"JD Rich","year":"2011","unstructured":"Rich, J. D., Wakeman, S. E. & Dickman, S. L. Medicine and the epidemic of incarceration in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med. 364, 2081 (2011).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"661_CR126","first-page":"e237","volume":"3","author":"JT Young","year":"2018","unstructured":"Young, J. T. et al. Dual diagnosis of mental illness and substance use disorder and injury in adults recently released from prison: a prospective cohort study. The Lancet. Public Health 3, e237\u2013e248 (2018).","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"661_CR127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1177\/1078345817716180","volume":"23","author":"ED Gottfried","year":"2017","unstructured":"Gottfried, E. D. & Christopher, S. C. Mental disorders among criminal offenders: a review of the literature. J. Correct. Health Care 23, 336\u2013346 (2017).","journal-title":"J. Correct. Health Care"},{"key":"661_CR128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.56.7.840","volume":"56","author":"DE McNiel","year":"2005","unstructured":"McNiel, D. E., Binder, R. L. & Robinson, J. C. Incarceration associated with homelessness, mental disorder, and co-occurring substance abuse. Psychiatr. Serv. 56, 840\u2013846 (2005).","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Serv."},{"key":"661_CR129","unstructured":"Council, N. R. in (eds Travis, J., Western, B. & Redburn, S.) The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences, 464 (The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2014)."},{"key":"661_CR130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9133.2011.00754.x","volume":"10","author":"M Massoglia","year":"2011","unstructured":"Massoglia, M. & Warner, C. The consequences of incarceration: Challenges for scientifically informed and policy-relevant research. Criminol. Pub Pol\u2019y 10, 851 (2011).","journal-title":"Criminol. Pub Pol\u2019y"},{"key":"661_CR131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1177\/070674371105600808","volume":"56","author":"E Amari","year":"2011","unstructured":"Amari, E., Rehm, J., Goldner, E. & Fischer, B. Nonmedical prescription opioid use and mental health and pain comorbidities: a narrative review. Can. J. Psychiatry 56, 495\u2013502 (2011).","journal-title":"Can. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"661_CR132","unstructured":"Hedegaard, H., Mini\u00f1o, A. M. & Warner, M. Drug overdose deaths in the United States, 1999\u20132017. NCHS Data Brief, 329 (National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD, 2018)."},{"key":"661_CR133","unstructured":"Murphy S. L., Xu J., Kochanek K. D. & Arias, E. Mortality in the United States, 2017. NCHS Data Brief, 328 (National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD, 2018)."},{"key":"661_CR134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.9308","volume":"318","author":"D Dowell","year":"2017","unstructured":"Dowell, D. et al. Contribution of opioid-involved poisoning to the change in life expectancy in the United States, 2000\u20132015. JAMA 318, 1065\u20131067 (2017).","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"661_CR135","first-page":"0.581","volume":"1","author":"KD Kochanek","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kochanek, K. D., Arias, E. & Bastian, B. A. Statistics NCfH. The effect of changes in selected age-specific causes of death on non-Hispanic white life expectancy between 2000 and 2014. Heart Dis. 1, 0.581 (2017).","journal-title":"Heart Dis."},{"issue":"3","key":"661_CR136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2019.6834","volume":"322","author":"S. Claiborne Johnston","year":"2019","unstructured":"Johnston, S. C. Academic medical centers: too large for their own health? JAMA 203\u2013204 (2019).","journal-title":"JAMA"}],"container-title":["Translational Psychiatry"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41398-019-0661-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41398-019-0661-9","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41398-019-0661-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,16]],"date-time":"2022-12-16T10:57:56Z","timestamp":1671188276000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41398-019-0661-9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,28]]},"references-count":136,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12]]}},"alternative-id":["661"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41398-019-0661-9","relation":{},"ISSN":["2158-3188"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2158-3188","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,28]]},"assertion":[{"value":"9 August 2019","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"5 November 2019","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"7 November 2019","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"28 November 2019","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Neither author has financial or commercial interests that pertain to the work of authorship or content of this manuscript. R.A.C. has had advisory contracts with Indigobio (Indianapolis-based Bioanalytics Technology and Software company) and Proniras (Pharmaceutical Orphan drug Research Firm) and serves as a consultant to the U.S. DOJ, DEA.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflict of interest"}}],"article-number":"320"}}