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The phenomenon is more common in people on the autism spectrum compared to the general population and seems also to be associated with other neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions and features. We assessed the associations between self-reported synaesthesia and eight psychiatric \/ neurodevelopment features in 18-year-old twins and estimated the genetic and environmental contributions to these associations using classical twin modelling. All of the neurodevelopmental \/ psychiatric features (related to autism, ADHD, obsessive-compulsive disorder, anxiety, depression, psychotic-like experiences, eating disorders, and (hypo-)mania) correlated positively with self-reported synaesthesia. The strongest association was found with obsessive-compulsive features (r\u2009=\u20090.28). Genetic factors explained more than 50% of most these associations. Environmental factors that are not shared by twins (non-shared environment) influenced the associations to different degrees, while the influence of environmental factors that are shared by twins was estimated to be negligible. Rather than being specifically linked to autism, synaesthesia seems to be associated with a wider range of neurodevelopmental \/ psychiatric features, and especially obsessive-compulsive features. Genetic factors play a predominant role in most of these associations, suggesting that synaesthesia might share part of its genetic causes with several neurodevelopmental \/ psychiatric conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-025-03444-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,12]],"date-time":"2025-07-12T00:28:18Z","timestamp":1752280098000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Genetic and environmental contributions to the link between synaesthesia and neurodevelopmental and psychiatric features: a twin study"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7743-526X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Janina","family":"Neufeld","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7810-6348","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tessa M.","family":"van Leeuwen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3765-2067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ralf","family":"Kuja-Halkola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7235-8499","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sebastian","family":"Lundstr\u00f6m","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6851-3297","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Henrik","family":"Larsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3037-5287","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul","family":"Lichtenstein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4579-4970","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sven","family":"B\u00f6lte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4545-0924","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Mataix-Cols","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5161-4182","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mark J.","family":"Taylor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"3444_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143840","volume":"64","author":"J Ward","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ward J. 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S.B. discloses that he has in the last 3 years acted as an author, consultant, or lecturer for Medice and LinusBio. He receives royalties for textbooks and diagnostic tools from Hogrefe, UTB, Ernst Reinhardt, Kohlhammer, and Liber. He is partner NeuroSupportSolutions International AB. H.L. reports receiving grants from Shire Pharmaceuticals; personal fees from and serving as a speaker for Medice, Shire\/Takeda Pharmaceuticals and Evolan Pharma AB; and sponsorship for a conference on attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder from Shire\/Takeda Pharmaceuticals and Evolan Pharma AB, all outside the submitted work. H.L. is editor-in-chief of JCPP Advances. J.N. is editorial board member at Scientific Reports, T.M.v.L is action editor at Perception\/iPerception (SAGE).","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}},{"value":"The study was performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and Swedish law with regard to personal data handling; and was approved by the Regional Ethical Review Authority in Stockholm and the Swedish Ethical Review Authority (Dnr: 2010\/1410-31\/1; Dnr: 2018\/141-32). Informed consent was obtained from all participants.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}}],"article-number":"240"}}