{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T05:16:20Z","timestamp":1783055780198,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778457600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783036800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":53,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"MEXT | Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["22K11465"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22K11465"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Transl Psychiatry"],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-026-04080-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T10:45:37Z","timestamp":1778496337000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Altered flow of information in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0854-0354","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Soheil","family":"Keshmiri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-7653-1109","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seann","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6852-2433","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernd","family":"Kuhn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"4080_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.21374","volume":"24","author":"S Cortese","year":"2025","unstructured":"Cortese S, Bellgrove MA, Brikell I, Franke B, Goodman DW, Hartman CA, et al. Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults: evidence base, uncertainties and controversies. World Psychiatry. 2025;24:347\u201371.","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2009.07.026","volume":"57","author":"G Tripp","year":"2009","unstructured":"Tripp G, Wickens JR. Neurobiology of adhd. Neuropharmacology. 2009;57:579\u201389.","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"4080_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DSM5 (ed.): American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th Ed, text revision. New York: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2022;59\u201366.","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425787"},{"key":"4080_CR4","unstructured":"ICD11 (ed.): World Health Organization. International classification of diseases, 11th revision Geneva: World Health Organization; 2022;6A05."},{"key":"4080_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-024-00495-0","volume":"10","author":"SV Faraone","year":"2024","unstructured":"Faraone SV, Bellgrove MA, Brikell I, Cortese S, Hartman CA, Hollis C, et al. Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (primer). Nat Reviews Dis Primers. 2024;10:11.","journal-title":"Nat Reviews Dis Primers"},{"key":"4080_CR6","unstructured":"Zigmond MJ, Wiley CA, Chesselet MF (eds.) Neurobiology of brain disorders: biological basis of neurological and psychiatric disorders. 2nd Edition. New York: Academic Press; 2023;29."},{"key":"4080_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.148.5.564","volume":"148","author":"J Biederman","year":"1991","unstructured":"Biederman J, Newcorn J, Sprich S. Comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1991;148:564\u201377.","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200102000-00009","volume":"40","author":"PS Jensen","year":"2001","unstructured":"Jensen PS, Hinshaw SP, Kraemer HC, Lenora N, Newcorn JH, Abikoff HB, et al. ADHD comorbidity findings from the mta study: comparing comorbid subgroups. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;40:147\u201358.","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2420","DOI":"10.12998\/wjcc.v7.i17.2420","volume":"7","author":"S Gnanavel","year":"2019","unstructured":"Gnanavel S, Sharma P, Kaushal P, Hussain S. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and comorbidity: a review of literature. World J Clin Cases. 2019;7:2420.","journal-title":"World J Clin Cases"},{"key":"4080_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1586\/14737175.2016.1146591","volume":"16","author":"KM Antshel","year":"2016","unstructured":"Antshel KM, Zhang-James Y, Wagner KE, Ledesma A, Faraone SV. An update on the comorbidity of ADHD and asd: a focus on clinical management. Expert Rev Neurother. 2016;16:279\u201393.","journal-title":"Expert Rev Neurother"},{"key":"4080_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054706286698","volume":"10","author":"DB Schatz","year":"2006","unstructured":"Schatz DB, Rostain AL. ADHD with comorbid anxiety: a review of the current literature. J Atten Disord. 2006;10:141\u20139.","journal-title":"J Atten Disord"},{"key":"4080_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-09542-6","volume":"646","author":"X Zhang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zhang X, Grove J, Gu Y, Buus CK, Nielsen LK, Neufeld SA, et al. Polygenic and developmental profiles of autism differ by age at diagnosis. Nature. 2025;646:1146\u201355.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"4080_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054716669589","volume":"22","author":"JT Instanes","year":"2018","unstructured":"Instanes JT, Klungs\u00f8yr K, Halm\u00f8y A, Fasmer OB, Haavik J. Adult ADHD and comorbid somatic disease: a systematic literature review. J Atten Disord. 2018;22:203\u201328.","journal-title":"J Atten Disord"},{"key":"4080_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2015.15020266","volume":"173","author":"S Cortese","year":"2016","unstructured":"Cortese S, Moreira-Maia CR, St. Fleur D, Morcillo-Pe\u02dcnalver C, Rohde LA, Faraone SV. Association between ADHD and obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;173:34\u201343.","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1111\/acps.13694","volume":"150","author":"B Libutzki","year":"2024","unstructured":"Libutzki B, Neukirch B, Reif A, Hartman CA. Somatic burden of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder across the lifecourse. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2024;150:105\u201317.","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr Scand"},{"key":"4080_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"900981","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2022.900981","volume":"16","author":"J Buitelaar","year":"2022","unstructured":"Buitelaar J, B\u00f6lte S, Brandeis D, Caye A, Christmann N, Cortese S, et al. Toward precision medicine in ADHD. Front Behav Neurosci. 2022;16:900981.","journal-title":"Front Behav Neurosci"},{"key":"4080_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.21037","volume":"22","author":"S Cortese","year":"2023","unstructured":"Cortese S, Solmi M, Michelini G, Bellato A, Blanner C, Canozzi A, et al. Candidate diagnostic biomarkers for neurodevelopmental disorders in children and adolescents: a systematic review. World Psychiatry. 2023;22:129\u201349.","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2011.11.007","volume":"16","author":"FX Castellanos","year":"2012","unstructured":"Castellanos FX, Proal E. A large-scale brain systems in ADHD: beyond the prefrontal\u2013striatal model. Trends Cognit Sci. 2012;16:17\u201326.","journal-title":"Trends Cognit Sci"},{"key":"4080_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2012.11101521","volume":"169","author":"S Cortese","year":"2012","unstructured":"Cortese S, Kelly C, Chabernaud C, Proal E, Di Martino A, Milham MP, et al. Toward systems neuroscience of ADHD: a meta-analysis of 55 fMRI studies. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169:1038\u201355.","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2006.01671.x","volume":"47","author":"SG Dickstein","year":"2006","unstructured":"Dickstein SG, Bannon K, Castellanos FX, Milham MP. The neural correlates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: an ale meta-analysis. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2006;47:1051\u201362.","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2007.02.005","volume":"31","author":"EJ Sonuga-Barke","year":"2007","unstructured":"Sonuga-Barke EJ, Castellanos FX. Spontaneous attentional fluctuations in impaired states and pathological conditions: a neurobiological hypothesis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2007;31:977\u201386.","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"4080_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.3109\/15622975.2010.518624","volume":"12","author":"J Ahrendts","year":"2011","unstructured":"Ahrendts J, R\u00fcsch N, Wilke M, Philipsen A, Eickhoff SB, Glauche V, et al. Visual cortex abnormalities in adults with ADHD: a structural mri study. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2011;12:260\u201370.","journal-title":"World J Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1122","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2011.117","volume":"68","author":"E Proal","year":"2011","unstructured":"Proal E, Reiss PT, Klein RG, Mannuzza S, Gotimer K, Ramos-Olazagasti MA, et al. Brain gray matter deficits at 33-year follow-up in adults with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder established in childhood. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011;68:1122\u201334.","journal-title":"Arch Gen Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2013.277","volume":"70","author":"H Hart","year":"2013","unstructured":"Hart H, Radua J, Nakao T, Mataix-Cols D, Rubia K. Meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of inhibition and attention in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: exploring task-specific, stimulant medication, and age effects. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013;70:185\u201398.","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2016.0700","volume":"73","author":"LJ Norman","year":"2016","unstructured":"Norman LJ, Carlisi C, Lukito S, Hart H, Mataix-Cols D, Radua J, et al. Structural and functional brain abnormalities in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder: a comparative meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73:815\u201325.","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291720000574","volume":"50","author":"S Lukito","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lukito S, Norman L, Carlisi C, Radua J, Hart H, Simonoff E, et al. Comparative meta-analyses of brain structural and functional abnormalities during cognitive control in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Psychol Med. 2020;50:894\u2013919.","journal-title":"Psychol Med"},{"key":"4080_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2019.02.011","volume":"100","author":"F Samea","year":"2019","unstructured":"Samea F, Soluki S, Nejati V, Zarei M, Cortese S, Eickhoff SB, et al. Brain alterations in children\/adolescents with ADHD revisited: a neuroimaging meta-analysis of 96 structural and functional studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;100:1\u20138.","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"4080_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2020.08.014","volume":"60","author":"S Cortese","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cortese S, Aoki YY, Itahashi T, Castellanos FX, Eickhoff SB. Systematic review and meta-analysis: resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2021;60:61\u201375.","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1080\/15622975.2020.1775889","volume":"21","author":"B Sutcubasi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sutcubasi B, Metin B, Kurban MK, Metin ZE, Beser B, Sonuga-Barke E. Resting-state network dysconnectivity in ADHD: a system-neuroscience-based meta-analysis. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2020;21:662\u201372.","journal-title":"World J Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1751","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-019-0510-4","volume":"22","author":"AT Reid","year":"2019","unstructured":"Reid AT, Headley DB, Mill RD, Sanchez-Romero R, Uddin LQ, Marinazzo D, et al. Advancing functional connectivity research from association to causation. Nat Neurosci. 2019;22:1751\u201360.","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"4080_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3862","volume":"17","author":"JD Murray","year":"2014","unstructured":"Murray JD, Bernacchia A, Freedman DJ, Romo R, Wallis JD, Cai X, et al. A hierarchy of intrinsic timescales across primate cortex. Nat Neurosci. 2014;17:1661\u20133.","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"4080_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2017.11.005","volume":"22","author":"D Badre","year":"2018","unstructured":"Badre D, Nee DE. Frontal cortex and the hierarchical control of behavior. Trends Cognit Sci. 2018;22:170\u201388.","journal-title":"Trends Cognit Sci"},{"key":"4080_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Westerberg JA, Roelfsema PR Hierarchical interactions between sensory cortices defy predictive coding. Trends Cogn Sci. 2025;30:110-123.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2025.09.018"},{"key":"4080_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2023.03.033","volume":"111","author":"S Chopra","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chopra S, Zhang XH, Holmes AJ. Wave-like properties of functional dynamics across the cortical sheet. Neuron. 2023;111:1171\u20133.","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"4080_CR35","first-page":"3","volume":"59","author":"G Northoff","year":"2022","unstructured":"Northoff G. Spatiotemporal psychopathology \u2013 a novel approach to brain and symptoms. Arch Neuropsychiatry. 2022;59:3.","journal-title":"Arch Neuropsychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plrev.2019.05.002","volume":"33","author":"G Northoff","year":"2020","unstructured":"Northoff G, Wainio-Theberge S, Evers K. Is temporo-spatial dynamics the \u201ccommon currency\u201d of brain and mind? in quest of \u201cspatiotemporal neuroscience\u201d. Phys Life Rev. 2020;33:34\u201354.","journal-title":"Phys Life Rev"},{"key":"4080_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.85.461","volume":"85","author":"T Schreiber","year":"2000","unstructured":"Schreiber T. Measuring information transfer. Phys Rev Lett. 2000;85:462.","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"key":"4080_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/s10827-010-0271-2","volume":"30","author":"JT Lizier","year":"2011","unstructured":"Lizier JT, Heinzle J, Horstmann A, Haynes JD, Prokopenko M. Multivariate information-theoretic measures reveal directed information structure and task relevant changes in fmri connectivity. J Comput Neurosci. 2011;30:85\u2013107.","journal-title":"J Comput Neurosci"},{"key":"4080_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5993","DOI":"10.1109\/TNNLS.2021.3072149","volume":"33","author":"J Liu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Liu J, Ji J, Xun G, Zhang A. Inferring effective connectivity networks from fmri time series with a temporal entropy-score. IEEE Trans Neural Netw Learn Syst. 2021;33:5993\u20136006.","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Neural Netw Learn Syst"},{"key":"4080_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1423014","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2024.1423014","volume":"18","author":"WX Li","year":"2024","unstructured":"Li WX, Lin QH, Zhang CY, Han Y, Calhoun VD. A new transfer entropy method for measuring directed connectivity from complex-valued fmri data. Front Neurosci. 2024;18:1423014.","journal-title":"Front Neurosci"},{"key":"4080_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2023.101222","volume":"60","author":"JT Nigg","year":"2023","unstructured":"Nigg JT, Karalunas SL, Mooney MA, Wilmot B, Nikolas MA, Martel MM, et al. The oregon adhd-1000: a new longitudinal data resource enriched for clinical cases and multiple levels of analysis. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2023;60:101222.","journal-title":"Dev Cogn Neurosci"},{"key":"4080_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1038\/s41592-018-0235-4","volume":"16","author":"O Esteban","year":"2019","unstructured":"Esteban O, Markiewicz CJ, Blair RW, Moodie CA, Isik AI, Erramuzpe A, et al. fMRIPrep: a robust preprocessing pipeline for functional mri. Nat Methods. 2019;16:111\u20136.","journal-title":"Nat Methods"},{"key":"4080_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-022-01070-0","volume":"25","author":"AI Luppi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Luppi AI, Mediano PAM, Rosas FE, Holland N, Fryer TD, O'Brien JT, et al. A synergistic core for human brain evolution and cognition. Nat Neurosci. 2022;25:771\u201382.","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"4080_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3095","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhx179","volume":"28","author":"A Schaefer","year":"2018","unstructured":"Schaefer A, Kong R, Gordon EM, Laumann TO, Zuo XN, Holmes AJ, et al. Local-global parcellation of the human cerebral cortex from intrinsic functional connectivity mri. Cereb Cortex. 2018;28:3095\u2013114.","journal-title":"Cereb Cortex"},{"key":"4080_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-020-00711-6","volume":"23","author":"Y Tian","year":"2020","unstructured":"Tian Y, Margulies DS, Breakspear M, Zalesky A. Topographic organization of the human subcortex unveiled with functional connectivity gradients. Nat Neurosci. 2020;23:1421\u201332.","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"4080_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00411.2021","volume":"128","author":"P Moghimi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Moghimi P, Dang AT, Do Q, Netoff TI, Lim KO, Atluri G. Evaluation of functional mri-based human brain parcellation: a review. J Neurophysiol. 2022;128:197\u2013217.","journal-title":"J Neurophysiol"},{"key":"4080_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1162\/netn_a_00170","volume":"5","author":"AI Luppi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Luppi AI, Stamatakis EA. Combining network topology and information theory to construct representative brain networks. Netw Neurosci. 2021;5:96\u2013124.","journal-title":"Netw Neurosci"},{"key":"4080_CR48","unstructured":"Cover TM, Thomas JA Elements of information theory. New York: Wiley Series in Telecommunications and Signal Processing; 2005."},{"key":"4080_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55809","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0055809","volume":"8","author":"M Wibral","year":"2013","unstructured":"Wibral M, Pampu N, Priesemann V, Siebenh\u00a8uhner F, Seiwert H, Lindner M, et al. Measuring information-transfer delays. PLoS One. 2013;8:55809.","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"4080_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.physiol.66.082602.092845","volume":"66","author":"NK Logothetis","year":"2004","unstructured":"Logothetis NK, Wandell BA. Interpreting the bold signal. Annu Rev Physiol. 2004;66:735\u201369.","journal-title":"Annu Rev Physiol"},{"key":"4080_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diwadkar VA, Eickhoff SB (eds.) Brain network dysfunction in neuropsychiatric illness, methods, applications, and implications. Switzerland AG: Springer; 2021.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-59797-9"},{"key":"4080_CR52","unstructured":"Abel T, Nickl-Jockschat T (eds.) The neuorbiology of schizophrenia. London: Academic Press; 2016;297."},{"key":"4080_CR53","unstructured":"J.F. H, Black WC, Babin BJ, Anderson RE Multivariate data analysis, eighth edition. Croydon: Cengage Learning EMEA; 2021;415."},{"key":"4080_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.3102\/10769986006002107","volume":"6","author":"LV Hedges","year":"1981","unstructured":"Hedges LV. Distribution theory for glass\u2019s estimator of effect size and related estimators. J Educ Stat. 1981;6:107\u201328.","journal-title":"J Educ Stat"},{"key":"4080_CR55","unstructured":"Cohen J (ed.) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, revised edition. New York: Academic Press; 1977."},{"key":"4080_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1093\/jpepsy\/jsp004","volume":"34","author":"J Durlak","year":"2009","unstructured":"Durlak J. How to select, calculate, and interpret effect sizes. J Pediatr Psychol. 2009;34:917\u201328.","journal-title":"J Pediatr Psychol"},{"key":"4080_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/S1566-2772(01)00007-X","volume":"1","author":"J Swanson","year":"2001","unstructured":"Swanson J, Deutsch C, Cantwell D, Posner M, Kennedy JL, Barr CL, et al. Genes and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Clin Neurosci Res. 2001;1:207\u201316.","journal-title":"Clin Neurosci Res"},{"key":"4080_CR58","first-page":"51","volume":"10","author":"JM Swanson","year":"2012","unstructured":"Swanson JM, Schuck S, Porter MM, Carlson C, Hartman CA, Sergeant JA, et al. Categorical and dimensional definitions and evaluations of symptoms of adhd: history of the snap and the swan rating scales. Int J Educ Psychol Assess. 2012;10:51.","journal-title":"Int J Educ Psychol Assess"},{"key":"4080_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1109\/TAC.1980.1102314","volume":"25","author":"V Klema","year":"1980","unstructured":"Klema V, Laub A. The singular value decomposition: its computation and some applications. IEEE Trans Autom Control. 1980;25:164\u201376.","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Autom Control"},{"key":"4080_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022627411411","volume":"20","author":"C Cortes","year":"1995","unstructured":"Cortes C, Vapnik V. Support-vector networks. Mach Learn. 1995;20:273\u201397.","journal-title":"Mach Learn"},{"key":"4080_CR61","first-page":"2825","volume":"12","author":"F Pedregosa","year":"2011","unstructured":"Pedregosa F, Varoquaux G, Gramfort A, Michel V, Thirion B, Grisel O, et al. Scikit-learn: machine learning in python. J Mach Learn Res. 2011;12:2825\u201330.","journal-title":"J Mach Learn Res"},{"key":"4080_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2024.116338","volume":"345","author":"M Wang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Wang M, Yu J, Kim HD, Cruz AB. Neural correlates of executive function and attention in children with ADHD: an ALE meta-analysis of task-based functional connectivity studies. Psychiatry Res. 2025;345:116338.","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"key":"4080_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2019.18091033","volume":"176","author":"M Hoogman","year":"2019","unstructured":"Hoogman M, Muetzel R, Guimaraes JP, Shumskaya E, Mennes M, Zwiers MP, et al. Brain imaging of the cortex in ADHD: a coordinated analysis of large-scale clinical and population-based samples. Am J Psychiatry. 2019;176:531\u201342.","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4098","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-023-02173-1","volume":"28","author":"V Parlatini","year":"2023","unstructured":"Parlatini V, Itahashi T, Lee Y, Liu S, Nguyen TT, Aoki YY, et al. White matter alterations in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a systematic review of 129 diffusion imaging studies with meta-analysis. Mol Psychiatry. 2023;28:4098\u2013123.","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR65","first-page":"38","volume":"19","author":"MW Laufer","year":"1957","unstructured":"Laufer MW, Denhoff E, Solomons G. Hyperkinetic impulse disorder in children\u2019s behavior problems. Biopsychosoc Sci Med. 1957;19:38\u201349.","journal-title":"Biopsychosoc Sci Med"},{"key":"4080_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-023-00701-0","volume":"24","author":"JM Shine","year":"2023","unstructured":"Shine JM, Lewis LD, Garrett DD, Hwang K. The impact of the human thalamus on brain-wide information processing. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2023;24:416\u201330.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"4080_CR67","first-page":"1103","volume":"8","author":"I Fuelscher","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fuelscher I, Hyde C, Thomson P, Vijayakumar N, Sciberras E, Efron D, et al. Longitudinal trajectories of white matter development in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2023;8:1103\u201312.","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging"},{"key":"4080_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2020.06.004","volume":"89","author":"P Shaw","year":"2021","unstructured":"Shaw P, Sudre G. Adolescent attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: understanding teenage symptom trajectories. Biol Psychiatry. 2021;89:152\u201361.","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pscychresns.2012.04.011","volume":"204","author":"S Xia","year":"2012","unstructured":"Xia S, Li X, Kimball AE, Kelly MS, Lesser I, Branch C. Thalamic shape and connectivity abnormalities in children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2012;204:161\u20137.","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"key":"4080_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2009.09030398","volume":"167","author":"I Ivanov","year":"2010","unstructured":"Ivanov I, Bansal R, Hao X, Zhu H, Kellendonk C, Miller L, et al. Morphological abnormalities of the thalamus in youths with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167:397\u2013408.","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2011.05958.x","volume":"1224","author":"BJ Levy","year":"2011","unstructured":"Levy BJ, Wagner AD. Cognitive control and right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex: reflexive reorienting, motor inhibition, and action updating. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2011;1224:40\u201362.","journal-title":"Ann N Y Acad Sci"},{"key":"4080_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.02.070","volume":"56","author":"D Swick","year":"2011","unstructured":"Swick D, Ashley V, Turken U. Are the neural correlates of stopping and not going identical? quantitative meta-analysis of two response inhibition tasks. Neuroimage. 2011;56:1655\u201365.","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"4080_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14652","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3048-14.2014","volume":"34","author":"W Cai","year":"2014","unstructured":"Cai W, Ryali S, Chen T, Li CSR, Menon V. Dissociable roles of right inferior frontal cortex and anterior insula in inhibitory control: evidence from intrinsic and task-related functional parcellation, connectivity, and response profile analyses across multiple datasets. J Neurosci. 2014;34:14652\u201367.","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"4080_CR74","first-page":"4073","volume":"27","author":"W Cai","year":"2017","unstructured":"Cai W, Chen T, Ide JS, Li CSR, Menon V. Dissociable fronto-operculum-insula control signals for anticipation and detection of inhibitory sensory cue. Cereb Cortex. 2017;27:4073\u201382.","journal-title":"Cereb Cortex"},{"key":"4080_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12569","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0800005105","volume":"105","author":"D Sridharan","year":"2008","unstructured":"Sridharan D, Levitin DJ, Menon V. A critical role for the right fronto-insular cortex in switching between central-executive and default-mode networks. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2008;105:12569\u201374.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci"},{"key":"4080_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-010-0262-0","volume":"214","author":"V Menon","year":"2010","unstructured":"Menon V, Uddin LQ. Saliency, switching, attention and control: a network model of insula function. Brain Struct Funct. 2010;214:655\u201367.","journal-title":"Brain Struct Funct"},{"key":"4080_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2011.08.003","volume":"15","author":"V Menon","year":"2011","unstructured":"Menon V. Large-scale brain networks and psychopathology: a unifying triple network model. Trends Cogn Sci. 2011;15:483\u2013506.","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"key":"4080_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5141","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22539","volume":"35","author":"S Morein-Zamir","year":"2014","unstructured":"Morein-Zamir S, Dodds C, Hartevelt TJ, Schwarzkopf W, Sahakian B, M\u00fcller U, et al. Hypoactivation in right inferior frontal cortex is specifically associated with motor response inhibition in adult ADHD. Hum Brain Mapp. 2014;35:5141\u201352.","journal-title":"Hum Brain Mapp"},{"key":"4080_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2019.12.412","volume":"131","author":"C Breitling","year":"2020","unstructured":"Breitling C, Zaehle T, Dannhauer M, Tegelbeckers J, Flechtner HH, Krauel K. Comparison between conventional and hd-tdcs of the right inferior frontal gyrus in children and adolescents with ADHD. Clin Neurophysiol. 2020;131:1146\u201354.","journal-title":"Clin Neurophysiol"},{"key":"4080_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2006.01.003","volume":"26","author":"C Fassbender","year":"2006","unstructured":"Fassbender C, Schweitzer JB. Is there evidence for neural compensation in attention deficit hyper-activity disorder? a review of the functional neuroimaging literature. Clin Psychol Rev. 2006;26:445\u201365.","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Rev"},{"key":"4080_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4673","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-022-01706-4","volume":"27","author":"W Yin","year":"2022","unstructured":"Yin W, Li T, Mucha PJ, Cohen JR, Zhu H, Zhu Z, et al. Altered neural flexibility in children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2022;27:4673\u20139.","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e31820c2ebd","volume":"76","author":"DL Gilbert","year":"2011","unstructured":"Gilbert DL, Isaacs KM, Augusta M, Macneil LK, Mostofsky SH. Motor cortex inhibition: a marker of ADHD behavior and motor development in children. Neurology. 2011;76:615\u201321.","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"4080_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4492","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-023-02245-2","volume":"28","author":"G Northoff","year":"2023","unstructured":"Northoff G, Daub J, Hirjak D. Overcoming the translational crisis of contemporary psychiatry\u2013 converging phenomenological and spatiotemporal psychopathology. Mol Psychiatry. 2023;28:4492\u20139.","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2017.03.019","volume":"80","author":"G Northoff","year":"2018","unstructured":"Northoff G. The brain\u2019s spontaneous activity and its psychopathological symptoms \u2013 \u201cspatiotemporal binding and integration\u201d. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2018;80:81\u201390.","journal-title":"Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plrev.2020.06.005","volume":"33","author":"G Northoff","year":"2020","unstructured":"Northoff G, Wainio-Theberge S, Evers K. Spatiotemporal neuroscience \u2013 what is it and why we need it. Phys Life Rev. 2020;33:78\u201387.","journal-title":"Phys Life Rev"},{"key":"4080_CR86","unstructured":"Freud S The unconscious. London: Hogarth; 1915."},{"key":"4080_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Northoff G Neuropsychoanalysis: a complementary introduction. New York: Routledge; 2023.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003132905"},{"key":"4080_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boeker H, Hartwich P, Northoff G (eds.) Neuropsychodynamic psychiatry. Cham: Springer; 2018.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-75112-2"},{"key":"4080_CR89","unstructured":"Bernstein WM A basic theory of neuropsychoanalysis. New York: Routledge; 2011."},{"key":"4080_CR90","unstructured":"Solms M The only cure: freud and the neuroscience of mental healing. London: Orion Publishing Group; 2026."},{"key":"4080_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118692","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2021.118692","volume":"245","author":"TA Engel","year":"2021","unstructured":"Engel TA, Sch\u00a8olvinck ML, Lewis CM. The diversity and specificity of functional connectivity across spatial and temporal scales. Neuroimage. 2021;245:118692.","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"4080_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.12155.1","volume":"7","author":"M Selten","year":"2018","unstructured":"Selten M, Bokhoven H, Kasri NN. Inhibitory control of the excitatory\/inhibitory balance in psychiatric disorders. F1000Research. 2018;7:23.","journal-title":"F1000Research"},{"key":"4080_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20059","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.20059","volume":"5","author":"M Selten","year":"2016","unstructured":"Selten M, Bokhoven H, Kasri NN. MEF2C regulates cortical inhibitory and excitatory synapses and behaviors relevant to neurodevelopmental disorders. elife. 2016;5:20059.","journal-title":"elife"},{"key":"4080_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-020-01033-8","volume":"10","author":"AJ Harrington","year":"2020","unstructured":"Harrington AJ, Raissi A, Rajkovich K, Berto S, Kumar J, Molinaro G, et al. ADHD-like behaviors caused by inactivation of a transcription factor controlling the balance of inhibitory and excitatory neuron development in the mouse anterior brainstem. Transl Psychiatry. 2020;10:357.","journal-title":"Transl Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acn.2004.11.001","volume":"20","author":"HM Geurts","year":"2005","unstructured":"Geurts HM, Vert\u00b4e S, Oosterlaan J, Roeyers H, Sergeant JA. ADHD subtypes: do they differ in their executive functioning profile?. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2005;20:457\u201377.","journal-title":"Arch Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"4080_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200201000-00012","volume":"41","author":"JT Nigg","year":"2002","unstructured":"Nigg JT, Blaskey LG, Huang-Pollock CL, Rappley MD. Neuropsychological executive functions and dsm-iv ADHD subtypes. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2002;41:59\u201366.","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"4080_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Granger CW Investigating causal relations by econometric models and cross-spectral methods. Econometrica 1969: 424-38.","DOI":"10.2307\/1912791"},{"key":"4080_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3293","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4399-14.2015","volume":"35","author":"AK Seth","year":"2015","unstructured":"Seth AK, Barrett AB, Barnett L. Granger causality analysis in neuroscience and neuroimaging. J Neurosci. 2015;35:3293\u20137.","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"4080_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1361","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.20606","volume":"30","author":"G Deshpande","year":"2009","unstructured":"Deshpande G, LaConte S, James GA, Peltier S, Hu X. Multivariate granger causality analysis of fmri data. Hum Brain Mapp. 2009;30:1361\u201373.","journal-title":"Hum Brain Mapp"},{"key":"4080_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"238701","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.103.238701","volume":"103","author":"L Barnett","year":"2009","unstructured":"Barnett L, Barrett AB, Seth AK. Granger causality and transfer entropy are equivalent for gaussian variables. Phys Rev Lett. 2009;103:238701.","journal-title":"Phys Rev Lett"},{"key":"4080_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2014.00011","volume":"1","author":"JT Lizier","year":"2014","unstructured":"Lizier JT. Jidt: an information-theoretic toolkit for studying the dynamics of complex systems. Front Robot AI. 2014;1:1\u201311.","journal-title":"Front Robot AI"},{"key":"4080_CR102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68910","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0068910","volume":"8","author":"M Xia","year":"2013","unstructured":"Xia M, Wang J, He Y. Brainnet viewer: a network visualization tool for human brain connectomics. PLoS One. 2013;8:68910.","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"4080_CR103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71792","DOI":"10.3389\/fninf.2014.00014","volume":"8","author":"A Abraham","year":"2014","unstructured":"Abraham A, Pedregosa F, Eickenberg M, Gervais P, Mueller A, Kossaifi J, et al. Machine learning for neuroimaging with scikit-learn. Front Neuroinform. 2014;8:71792.","journal-title":"Front Neuroinform"}],"container-title":["Translational Psychiatry"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41398-026-04080-9","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41398-026-04080-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41398-026-04080-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T04:23:28Z","timestamp":1783052608000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41398-026-04080-9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]]},"references-count":103,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["4080"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41398-026-04080-9","relation":{},"ISSN":["2158-3188"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2158-3188","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"16 December 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"27 March 2026","order":2,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"30 April 2026","order":3,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 May 2026","order":4,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}},{"value":"This research was approved based on Article 12 of OIST Human Subjects Research (Reference Number: HSR-2023-023).","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics statement"}}],"article-number":"327"}}