{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T21:31:31Z","timestamp":1793741491178,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763510400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763510400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004740","name":"Volkswagen of America","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004740","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nat Commun"],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-64979-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T12:53:04Z","timestamp":1763556784000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Cascading marginal emissions signals for green charging with growing electric vehicle adoption"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1663-5049","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sonia","family":"Martin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2928-840X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Siobhan","family":"Powell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4961-9539","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ram","family":"Rajagopal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"64979_CR1","unstructured":"International Energy Agency. World Energy Outlook 2023. Tech. Rep., International Energy Agency. https:\/\/www.iea.org\/reports\/world-energy-outlook-2023 (2023)."},{"key":"64979_CR2","first-page":"100","volume":"152","author":"KG Logan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Logan, K. G., Nelson, J. D., Brand, C. & Hastings, A. Phasing in electric vehicles: Does policy focusing on operating emission achieve net zero emissions reduction objectives? Transp. Res. Part A: Policy Pract. 152, 100\u2013114 (2021).","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A: Policy Pract."},{"key":"64979_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8844","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b00815","volume":"49","author":"M-AM Tamayao","year":"2015","unstructured":"Tamayao, M.-A. M., Michalek, J. J., Hendrickson, C. & Azevedo, I. M. L. Regional variability and uncertainty of electric vehicle life cycle CO2 emissions across the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 8844\u20138855 (2015).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"64979_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2024.114131","volume":"190","author":"S Powell","year":"2024","unstructured":"Powell, S., Martin, S., Rajagopal, R., Azevedo, I. M. L. & de Chalendar, J. Future-proof rates for controlled electric vehicle charging: Comparing multi-year impacts of different emission factor signals. Energy Policy 190, 114131 (2024).","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"64979_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2021.103499","volume":"24","author":"Y Tang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tang, Y., Cockerill, T. T., Pimm, A. J. & Yuan, X. Reducing the life cycle environmental impact of electric vehicles through emissions-responsive charging. iScience 24, 103499 (2021).","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"64979_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pepper, J., Miller, G., Maatta, S. & Shahriari, M. Achieving 24\/7 Renewable Energy by 2025. Tech. Rep., Peninsula Clean Energy. https:\/\/www.peninsulacleanenergy.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/24-7-white-paper-2023.pdf (2023).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-08786-8_4"},{"key":"64979_CR7","unstructured":"24\/7 Clean Energy - Data Centers - Google. https:\/\/www.google.com\/about\/datacenters\/cleanenergy\/."},{"key":"64979_CR8","unstructured":"Greenflux. Smart(er) Charging. https:\/\/www.greenflux.com\/smart-charging\/."},{"key":"64979_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2010.03.057","volume":"35","author":"AM Foley","year":"2010","unstructured":"Foley, A. M., \u00d3 Gallach\u00f3ir, B. P., Hur, J., Baldick, R. & McKeogh, E. J. A strategic review of electricity systems models. Energy 35, 4522\u20134530 (2010).","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10506","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b02500","volume":"53","author":"TA Deetjen","year":"2019","unstructured":"Deetjen, T. A. & Azevedo, I. L. Reduced-order dispatch model for simulating marginal emissions factors for the United States power sector. Environ. Sci. Technol. 53, 10506\u201310513 (2019).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"64979_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25497","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1912950116","volume":"116","author":"JA de Chalendar","year":"2019","unstructured":"de Chalendar, J. A., Taggart, J. & Benson, S. M. Tracking emissions in the US electricity system. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 25497\u201325502 (2019).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"64979_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jebo.2014.03.010","volume":"107","author":"JS Graff Zivin","year":"2014","unstructured":"Graff Zivin, J. S., Kotchen, M. J. & Mansur, E. T. Spatial and temporal heterogeneity of marginal emissions: Implications for electric cars and other electricity-shifting policies. J. Econ. Behav. Organ. 107, 248\u2013268 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Econ. Behav. Organ."},{"key":"64979_CR13","unstructured":"IEA. Trends in electric light-duty vehicles - Global EV Outlook 2023 - Analysis. https:\/\/www.iea.org\/reports\/global-ev-outlook-2023\/trends-in-electric-light-duty-vehicles (2023)."},{"key":"64979_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.esr.2020.100608","volume":"34","author":"M K\u00fchnbach","year":"2021","unstructured":"K\u00fchnbach, M., Stute, J. & Klingler, A.-L. Impacts of avalanche effects of price-optimized electric vehicle charging - Does demand response make it worse? Energy Strategy Rev. 34, 100608 (2021).","journal-title":"Energy Strategy Rev."},{"key":"64979_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrp.2023.101287","volume":"4","author":"Z Needell","year":"2023","unstructured":"Needell, Z., Wei, W. & Trancik, J. E. Strategies for beneficial electric vehicle charging to reduce peak electricity demand and store solar energy. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 4, 101287 (2023).","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Phys. Sci."},{"key":"64979_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121637","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2023.121637","volume":"349","author":"Z Kang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kang, Z., Ye, Z., Lam, C.-M. & Hsu, S.-C. Sustainable electric vehicle charging coordination: Balancing CO2 emission reduction and peak power demand shaving. Appl. Energy 349, 121637 (2023).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1039\/D1EE02206G","volume":"15","author":"MB Anwar","year":"2022","unstructured":"Anwar, M. B. et al. Assessing the value of electric vehicle managed charging: a review of methodologies and results. Energy Environ. Sci. 15, 466\u2013498 (2022).","journal-title":"Energy Environ. Sci."},{"key":"64979_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5724","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.1c06231","volume":"56","author":"X Li","year":"2022","unstructured":"Li, X. & Jenn, A. Energy, emissions, and cost impacts of charging price strategies for electric vehicles. Environ. Sci. Technol. 56, 5724\u20135733 (2022).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"64979_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2016.10.005","volume":"68","author":"N Daina","year":"2017","unstructured":"Daina, N., Sivakumar, A. & Polak, J. W. Modelling electric vehicles use: a survey on the methods. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 68, 447\u2013460 (2017).","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"64979_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2018.04.002","volume":"62","author":"S Hardman","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hardman, S. et al. A review of consumer preferences of and interactions with electric vehicle charging infrastructure. Transp. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ. 62, 508\u2013523 (2018).","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ."},{"key":"64979_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2015.07.012","volume":"156","author":"W-P Schill","year":"2015","unstructured":"Schill, W.-P. & Gerbaulet, C. Power system impacts of electric vehicles in Germany: Charging with coal or renewables? Appl. Energy 156, 185\u2013196 (2015).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5813","DOI":"10.1021\/es505822f","volume":"49","author":"A Weis","year":"2015","unstructured":"Weis, A., Michalek, J. J., Jaramillo, P. & Lueken, R. Emissions and cost implications of controlled electric vehicle charging in the U.S. PJM Interconnection. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 5813\u20135819 (2015).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"64979_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102534","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2020.102534","volume":"87","author":"L Xu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Xu, L., Yilmaz, H. M., Wang, Z., Poganietz, W.-R. & Jochem, P. Greenhouse gas emissions of electric vehicles in Europe considering different charging strategies. Transp. Res. D: Transp. Environ. 87, 102534 (2020).","journal-title":"Transp. Res. D: Transp. Environ."},{"key":"64979_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2020.114527","volume":"262","author":"F Manr\u00edquez","year":"2020","unstructured":"Manr\u00edquez, F., Sauma, E., Aguado, J., de la Torre, S. & Contreras, J. The impact of electric vehicle charging schemes in power system expansion planning. Appl. Energy 262, 114527 (2020).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3578","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2008.06.007","volume":"36","author":"H Lund","year":"2008","unstructured":"Lund, H. & Kempton, W. Integration of renewable energy into the transport and electricity sectors through V2G. Energy Policy 36, 3578\u20133587 (2008).","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"64979_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2021.112751","volume":"161","author":"G Blumberg","year":"2022","unstructured":"Blumberg, G., Broll, R. & Weber, C. The impact of electric vehicles on the future European electricity system - A scenario analysis. Energy Policy 161, 112751 (2022).","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"64979_CR27","first-page":"68","volume":"78","author":"P Jochem","year":"2015","unstructured":"Jochem, P., Babrowski, S. & Fichtner, W. Assessing CO2 emissions of electric vehicles in Germany in 2030. Transp. Res. Part A: Policy Pract. 78, 68\u201383 (2015).","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A: Policy Pract."},{"key":"64979_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"094060","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ab9870","volume":"15","author":"A Jenn","year":"2020","unstructured":"Jenn, A., Clark-Sutton, K., Gallaher, M. & Petrusa, J. Environmental impacts of extreme fast charging. Environ. Res. Lett. 15, 094060 (2020).","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"64979_CR29","unstructured":"Jenn, A. & Brown, A. Green Charging of Electric Vehicles Under a Net-Zero Emissions Policy Transition in California. Tech. Rep., Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis. https:\/\/escholarship.org\/uc\/item\/2rv3h345 (2021)."},{"key":"64979_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.1111\/jiec.13144","volume":"25","author":"A Arvesen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Arvesen, A. et al. Emissions of electric vehicle charging in future scenarios: The effects of time of charging. J. Ind. Ecol. 25, 1250\u20131263 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Ind. Ecol."},{"key":"64979_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2014.11.069","volume":"80","author":"P Nunes","year":"2015","unstructured":"Nunes, P., Farias, T. & Brito, M. C. Day charging electric vehicles with excess solar electricity for a sustainable energy system. Energy 80, 263\u2013274 (2015).","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1038\/s41560-022-01105-7","volume":"7","author":"S Powell","year":"2022","unstructured":"Powell, S., Cezar, G. V., Min, L., Azevedo, I. M. L. & Rajagopal, R. Charging infrastructure access and operation to reduce the grid impacts of deep electric vehicle adoption. Nat. Energy 7, 932\u2013945 (2022).","journal-title":"Nat. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115548","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2020.115548","volume":"277","author":"M Schwarz","year":"2020","unstructured":"Schwarz, M., Auz\u00e9py, Q. & Knoeri, C. Can electricity pricing leverage electric vehicles and battery storage to integrate high shares of solar photovoltaics? Appl. Energy 277, 115548 (2020).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2021.118385","volume":"308","author":"J Chen","year":"2022","unstructured":"Chen, J. et al. Emission mitigation potential from coordinated charging schemes for future private electric vehicles. Appl. Energy 308, 118385 (2022).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"124766","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.124766","volume":"284","author":"J Huber","year":"2021","unstructured":"Huber, J., Lohmann, K., Schmidt, M. & Weinhardt, C. Carbon efficient smart charging using forecasts of marginal emission factors. J. Clean. Prod. 284, 124766 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"64979_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3787","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.3c07098","volume":"58","author":"M Bruchon","year":"2024","unstructured":"Bruchon, M., Chen, Z. L. & Michalek, J. Cleaning up while changing gears: the role of battery design, fossil fuel power plants, and vehicle policy for reducing emissions in the transition to electric vehicles. Environ. Sci. Technol. 58, 3787\u20133799 (2024).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"64979_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2021.118382","volume":"309","author":"S Powell","year":"2022","unstructured":"Powell, S., Cezar, G. V. & Rajagopal, R. Scalable probabilistic estimates of electric vehicle charging given observed driver behavior. Appl. Energy 309, 118382 (2022).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2022.104263","volume":"88","author":"C Gschwendtner","year":"2023","unstructured":"Gschwendtner, C., Knoeri, C. & Stephan, A. The impact of plug-in behavior on the spatial-temporal flexibility of electric vehicle charging load. Sustain. Cities Soc. 88, 104263 (2023).","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"64979_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tej.2016.06.005","volume":"29","author":"J McLaren","year":"2016","unstructured":"McLaren, J., Miller, J., O\u2019Shaughnessy, E., Wood, E. & Shapiro, E. CO2 emissions associated with electric vehicle charging: The impact of electricity generation mix, charging infrastructure availability and vehicle type. Electr. J. 29, 72\u201388 (2016).","journal-title":"Electr. J."},{"key":"64979_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2020.115517","volume":"277","author":"R Tu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Tu, R., Gai, Y. J., Farooq, B., Posen, D. & Hatzopoulou, M. Electric vehicle charging optimization to minimize marginal greenhouse gas emissions from power generation. Appl. Energy 277, 115517 (2020).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7903","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b01519","volume":"53","author":"Y Gai","year":"2019","unstructured":"Gai, Y., Wang, A., Pereira, L., Hatzopoulou, M. & Posen, I. D. Marginal greenhouse gas emissions of Ontario\u2019s electricity system and the implications of electric vehicle charging. Environ. Sci. Technol. 53, 7903\u20137912 (2019).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"64979_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2020.115285","volume":"276","author":"NBG Brinkel","year":"2020","unstructured":"Brinkel, N. B. G., Schram, W. L., AlSkaif, T. A., Lampropoulos, I. & van Sark, W. G. J. H. M. Should we reinforce the grid? Cost and emission optimization of electric vehicle charging under different transformer limits. Appl. Energy 276, 115285 (2020).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2016.09.057","volume":"115","author":"CG Hoehne","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hoehne, C. G. & Chester, M. V. Optimizing plug-in electric vehicle and vehicle-to-grid charge scheduling to minimize carbon emissions. Energy 115, 646\u2013657 (2016).","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sukprasert, T., Bashir, N., Souza, A., Irwin, D. & Shenoy, P. On the Implications of Choosing Average versus Marginal Carbon Intensity Signals on Carbon-aware Optimizations. In Proceedings of the 15th ACM International Conference on Future and Sustainable Energy Systems, e-Energy \u201924, 422\u2013427 (Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 2024). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3632775.3661953.","DOI":"10.1145\/3632775.3661953"},{"key":"64979_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14701","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.2c02344","volume":"56","author":"AGN Elenes","year":"2022","unstructured":"Elenes, A. G. N., Williams, E., Hittinger, E. & Goteti, N. S. How well do emission factors approximate emission changes from electricity system models? Environ. Sci. Technol. 56, 14701\u201314712 (2022).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"64979_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5977","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2010.05.053","volume":"38","author":"AD Hawkes","year":"2010","unstructured":"Hawkes, A. D. Estimating marginal CO2 emissions rates for national electricity systems. Energy Policy 38, 5977\u20135987 (2010).","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"64979_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2014.03.060","volume":"125","author":"AD Hawkes","year":"2014","unstructured":"Hawkes, A. D. Long-run marginal CO2 emissions factors in national electricity systems. Appl. Energy 125, 197\u2013205 (2014).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2022.103915","volume":"25","author":"P Gagnon","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gagnon, P. & Cole, W. Planning for the evolution of the electric grid with a long-run marginal emission rate. iScience 25, 103915 (2022).","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"64979_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3229","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.0c06655","volume":"55","author":"CJR Sheppard","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sheppard, C. J. R., Jenn, A. T., Greenblatt, J. B., Bauer, G. S. & Gerke, B. F. Private versus Shared, Automated Electric Vehicles for U.S. Personal Mobility: Energy Use, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Grid Integration, and Cost Impacts. Environ. Sci. Technol. 55, 3229\u20133239 (2021).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"64979_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2022.103430","volume":"110","author":"D Mehlig","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mehlig, D., ApSimon, H. & Staffell, I. Emissions from charging electric vehicles in the UK. Transp. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ. 110, 103430 (2022).","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ."},{"key":"64979_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, K.-W., Bian, Y., Shi, Y. & Chen, Y. Carbon-Aware EV Charging. In 2022 IEEE International Conference on Communications, Control, and Computing Technologies for Smart Grids (SmartGridComm), 186\u2013192 (IEEE, Singapore, Singapore, 2022). https:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/document\/9960988\/.","DOI":"10.1109\/SmartGridComm52983.2022.9960988"},{"key":"64979_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121482","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2023.121482","volume":"348","author":"F Daneshzand","year":"2023","unstructured":"Daneshzand, F., Coker, P. J., Potter, B. & Smith, S. T. EV smart charging: How tariff selection influences grid stress and carbon reduction. Appl. Energy 348, 121482 (2023).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4059","DOI":"10.3390\/en12214059","volume":"12","author":"M Spitzer","year":"2019","unstructured":"Spitzer, M., Schlund, J., Apostolaki-Iosifidou, E. & Pruckner, M. Optimized integration of electric vehicles in low voltage distribution grids. Energies 12, 4059 (2019).","journal-title":"Energies"},{"key":"64979_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104708","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2023.104708","volume":"96","author":"J Li","year":"2023","unstructured":"Li, J., Wang, G., Wang, X. & Du, Y. Smart charging strategy for electric vehicles based on marginal carbon emission factors and time-of-use price. Sustain. Cities Soc. 96, 104708 (2023).","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"64979_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.erss.2018.02.013","volume":"42","author":"A Ensslen","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ensslen, A. et al. Incentivizing smart charging: Modeling charging tariffs for electric vehicles in German and French electricity markets. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 42, 112\u2013126 (2018).","journal-title":"Energy Res. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"64979_CR56","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Energy. Electric Vehicle Registrations by State. https:\/\/afdc.energy.gov\/data\/10962 (2024)."},{"key":"64979_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2021.103568","volume":"25","author":"E Buechler","year":"2022","unstructured":"Buechler, E. et al. Global changes in electricity consumption during COVID-19. iScience 25, 103568 (2022).","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"64979_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2020.07.013","volume":"161","author":"X Han","year":"2020","unstructured":"Han, X., Wei, Z., Hong, Z. & Zhao, S. Ordered charge control considering the uncertainty of charging load of electric vehicles based on Markov chain. Renew. Energy 161, 419\u2013434 (2020).","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR59","unstructured":"Pacific Gas & Electric. Electric Rates. https:\/\/view.officeapps.live.com\/op\/view.aspx?src=https:\/\/www.pge.com\/assets\/rates\/tariffs\/Res_Inclu_TOU_200101-200229.xlsx (2020)."},{"key":"64979_CR60","unstructured":"Google\u2019s Nest Renew, OhmConnect combine with goal of managing 50 GW of residential demand by 2030 \u2223 Utility Dive. https:\/\/www.utilitydive.com\/news\/google-nest-renew-ohmconnect-combine-vpp\/715616\/."},{"key":"64979_CR61","unstructured":"EnergyHub becomes the first DERMS to exceed 1MM devices under management. https:\/\/www.energyhub.com\/news\/energyhub-becomes-the-first-derms-to-exceed-1mm-devices-under-management."},{"key":"64979_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1038\/s41560-017-0074-z","volume":"3","author":"M Muratori","year":"2018","unstructured":"Muratori, M. Impact of uncoordinated plug-in electric vehicle charging on residential power demand. Nat. Energy 3, 193\u2013201 (2018).","journal-title":"Nat. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2025.126283","volume":"396","author":"S Martin","year":"2025","unstructured":"Martin, S., Nnorom, O., Levis, P. & Rajagopal, R. Optimizing software defined battery systems for transformer protection. Appl. Energy 396, 126283 (2025).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1138","DOI":"10.1109\/TPWRS.2023.3247345","volume":"39","author":"LF Valenzuela","year":"2024","unstructured":"Valenzuela, L. F., Degleris, A., Gamal, A. E., Pavone, M. & Rajagopal, R. Dynamic locational marginal emissions via implicit differentiation. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 39, 1138\u20131147 (2024).","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Syst."},{"key":"64979_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2016.02.071","volume":"169","author":"RJ Flores","year":"2016","unstructured":"Flores, R. J., Shaffer, B. P. & Brouwer, J. Electricity costs for an electric vehicle fueling station with Level 3 charging. Appl. Energy 169, 813\u2013830 (2016).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"64979_CR66","first-page":"2825","volume":"12","author":"F Pedregosa","year":"2011","unstructured":"Pedregosa, F. et al. Scikit-learn: Machine Learning in Python. J. Mach. Learn. Res. 12, 2825\u20132830 (2011).","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"64979_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01890115","volume":"1","author":"WHE Day","year":"1984","unstructured":"Day, W. H. E. & Edelsbrunner, H. Efficient algorithms for agglomerative hierarchical clustering methods. J. Class. 1, 7\u201324 (1984).","journal-title":"J. Class."},{"key":"64979_CR68","unstructured":"Commission, C. E. Electric Vehicle Chargers in California. https:\/\/www.energy.ca.gov\/data-reports\/energy-almanac\/zero-emission-vehicle-and-infrastructure-statistics\/electric-vehicle (2024). Publisher: California Energy Commission."},{"key":"64979_CR69","unstructured":"US Environmental Protection Agency. Continuous Emissions Monitoring System (CEMS) Data. https:\/\/newftp.epa.gov\/DmDnLoad\/emissions\/hourly\/monthly\/ (2019)."},{"key":"64979_CR70","unstructured":"US Environmental Protection Agency. Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database (eGRID). https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/energy\/emissions-generation-resource-integrated-database-egrid (2019)."},{"key":"64979_CR71","unstructured":"US Energy Information Administration. EIA-923 Monthly generation and fuel consumption time series file. https:\/\/www.eia.gov\/electricity\/data\/eia923\/ (2019)."},{"key":"64979_CR72","unstructured":"Western Electricity Coordinating Council. Western Assessment of Resource Adequacy (2022)."},{"key":"64979_CR73","unstructured":"Western Electricity Coordinating Council. Resources. https:\/\/feature.wecc.org\/soti\/topic-sections\/resources\/index.html (2024)."},{"key":"64979_CR74","unstructured":"Martin, S., Powell, S., Paxton, W. & Rajagopal, R. California Audi EV Dataset. https:\/\/data.mendeley.com\/datasets\/dszk8rzfjx\/1 (2025)."},{"key":"64979_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyai.2025.100539","volume":"21","author":"D Balaram","year":"2025","unstructured":"Balaram, D. et al. Graph-based two-level clustering for electric vehicle usage patterns. Energy AI 21, 100539 (2025).","journal-title":"Energy AI"},{"key":"64979_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Martin, S. & Powell, S. Cascading Marginal Emissions Factor Charging Control. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/zenodo.17144895.","DOI":"10.5281\/zenodo.17144895"}],"container-title":["Nature Communications"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-025-64979-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-025-64979-7","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-025-64979-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T14:03:23Z","timestamp":1763561003000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-025-64979-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]]},"references-count":76,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["64979"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-025-64979-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["2041-1723"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2041-1723","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]]},"assertion":[{"value":"7 February 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 October 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 November 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"S.M., S.P., and R.R. are co-inventors of a provisional patent application on the presented method. The research project was funded in part by Volkswagen Group of America.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"10150"}}