{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T00:06:38Z","timestamp":1791331598277,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769817600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]],"date-time":"2026-06-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781222400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":132,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000008","name":"Health Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000008","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["npj Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    mRNA-lipid nanoparticle (LNP) vaccines induce robust adaptive immune responses and have proven highly effective against SARS-CoV-2. However, their long-term effectiveness is limited by waning humoral responses, which decline substantially within the first six months post-boost vaccination. DNA-LNPs are being investigated as an alternative vaccine platform, offering prolonged antigen expression and robust immunity. Here, we compare DNA- and mRNA-LNP vaccines encoding CD40L-adjuvanted SARS-CoV-2 XBB.1.5 Spike (S\n                    <jats:sub>XBB.1.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    -CD40L) in a long-term in vivo challenge model. Both nucleic acid vaccines induced strong neutralizing antibody responses and conferred equivalent protection in Syrian hamsters challenged three weeks post-boost. Notably, DNA-LNP vaccination maintained high binding and neutralizing antibody titers six months post-boost, whereas mRNA-LNPs exhibited a marked decline. Correspondingly, while S\n                    <jats:sub>XBB.1.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    -CD40L DNA-LNP vaccination completely protected from weight loss, viral replication, and lung pathology at this late timepoint, S\n                    <jats:sub>XBB.1.5<\/jats:sub>\n                    -CD40L mRNA-LNP vaccination conferred minimal protection. These findings demonstrate that DNA-LNPs can sustain durable immunity, highlighting their potential as a next-generation vaccine platform that could reduce the need for frequent boosters.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-026-01382-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T17:35:18Z","timestamp":1769880918000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Durability of DNA-LNP and mRNA-LNP vaccine-induced immunity against SARS-CoV-2 XBB.1.5"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Levi","family":"Tamming","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Casey","family":"Lansdell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wanyue","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Diana","family":"Duque","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jegarubee","family":"Bavananthasivam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Grant","family":"Frahm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Annabelle","family":"Pfeifle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sathya N.","family":"Thulasi Raman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianguo","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caroline","family":"Gravel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew","family":"Stalker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew","family":"Stuible","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yves","family":"Durocher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wangxue","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lisheng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simon","family":"Sauve","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anh","family":"Tran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael J. W.","family":"Johnston","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xuguang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"1382_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9945","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adj9945","volume":"10","author":"N Lasrado","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lasrado, N. et al. Waning immunity and IgG4 responses following bivalent mRNA boosting. Sci. Adv. 10, 9945 (2024).","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"1382_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2023.109762","volume":"255","author":"K F\u00f6hse","year":"2023","unstructured":"F\u00f6hse, K. et al. The impact of BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine on adaptive and innate immune responses. Clin. Immunol. 255, 109762 (2023).","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"1382_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-36397-6","volume":"13","author":"T Ishii","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ishii, T. et al. Waning cellular immune responses and predictive factors in maintaining cellular immunity against SARS-CoV-2 six months after BNT162b2 mRNA vaccination. Sci. Rep. 13, 1\u201312 (2023).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"1382_CR4","first-page":"1","volume":"14","author":"MA Haq","year":"2024","unstructured":"Haq, M. A. et al. Antibody longevity and waning following COVID-19 vaccination in a 1-year longitudinal cohort in Bangladesh. Sci. Rep. 14, 1\u201311 (2024).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"1382_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-39189-8","volume":"14","author":"X Tong","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tong, X. et al. Waning and boosting of antibody Fc-effector functions upon SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. Nat. Commun. 14, 1\u201315 (2023). 2023 14:1.","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"1382_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126966","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2025.126966","volume":"54","author":"M Moore","year":"2025","unstructured":"Moore, M., Anderson, L., Schiffer, J. T., Matrajt, L. & Dimitrov, D. Durability of COVID-19 vaccine and infection induced immunity: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Vaccine 54, 126966 (2025).","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"1382_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2024.01.017","volume":"57","author":"K Srivastava","year":"2024","unstructured":"Srivastava, K. et al. SARS-CoV-2-infection- and vaccine-induced antibody responses are long lasting with an initial waning phase followed by a stabilization phase. Immunity 57, 587\u2013599.e4 (2024).","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"1382_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2032195","volume":"384","author":"AT Widge","year":"2021","unstructured":"Widge, A. T. et al. Durability of responses after SARS-CoV-2 mRNA-1273 vaccination. N. Engl. J. Med. 384, 80\u201382 (2021).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"1382_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2259","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2103916","volume":"384","author":"N Doria-Rose","year":"2021","unstructured":"Doria-Rose, N. et al. Antibody persistence through 6 months after the second dose of mRNA-1273 vaccine for Covid-19. N. Engl. J. Med. 384, 2259\u20132261 (2021).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"1382_CR10","first-page":"1372","volume":"373","author":"A Pegu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Pegu, A. et al. Durability of mRNA-1273 vaccine\u2013induced antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 variants. Science (1979) 373, 1372\u20131377 (2021).","journal-title":"Science (1979)"},{"key":"1382_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04527-1","volume":"604","author":"W Kim","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kim, W. et al. Germinal centre-driven maturation of B cell response to mRNA vaccination. Nature 604, 141\u2013145 (2022).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"1382_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-024-03278-y","volume":"31","author":"DC Nguyen","year":"2025","unstructured":"Nguyen, D. C. et al. SARS-CoV-2-specific plasma cells are not durably established in the bone marrow long-lived compartment after mRNA vaccination. Nat. Med. 31, 235\u2013244 (2025).","journal-title":"Nat. Med"},{"key":"1382_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac785","volume":"76","author":"A Florea","year":"2023","unstructured":"Florea, A. et al. Effectiveness of messenger RNA-1273 vaccine booster against coronavirus disease 2019 in immunocompetent adults. Clin. Infect. Dis. 76, 252\u2013262 (2023).","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"1382_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1804","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2200797","volume":"386","author":"LJ Abu-Raddad","year":"2022","unstructured":"Abu-Raddad, L. J. et al. Effect of mRNA vaccine boosters against SARS-CoV-2 omicron infection in Qatar. N. Engl. J. Med. 386, 1804\u20131816 (2022).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"1382_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ackerson, B. K. et al. Effectiveness and durability of mRNA-1273 BA.4\/BA.5 bivalent vaccine (mRNA-1273.222) against SARS-CoV-2 BA.4\/BA.5 and XBB sublineages. Hum Vaccin. Immunother. 20, 2335052 (2024).","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2024.2335052"},{"key":"1382_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11061016","volume":"11","author":"JN Maslow","year":"2023","unstructured":"Maslow, J. N. et al. DNA vaccines for epidemic preparedness: SARS-CoV-2 and beyond. Vaccine 11, 1016 (2023).","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"1382_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1281","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)00524-4","volume":"399","author":"AK Blakney","year":"2022","unstructured":"Blakney, A. K. & Bekker, L. G. DNA vaccines join the fight against COVID-19. Lancet 399, 1281\u20131282 (2022).","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"1382_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11020280","volume":"11","author":"L- Feliciano","year":"2023","unstructured":"Feliciano, L. - et al. Improved DNA vaccine delivery with needle-free injection systems. Vaccines 11, 280 (2023).","journal-title":"Vaccines"},{"key":"1382_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2018.03.010","volume":"26","author":"S Sabnis","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sabnis, S. et al. A novel amino lipid series for mRNA delivery: Improved endosomal escape and sustained pharmacology and safety in non-human primates. Mol. Ther. 26, 1509\u20131519 (2018).","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"1382_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtn.2019.01.013","volume":"15","author":"KJ Hassett","year":"2019","unstructured":"Hassett, K. J. et al. Optimization of lipid nanoparticles for intramuscular administration of mRNA vaccines. Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids 15, 1\u201311 (2019).","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids"},{"key":"1382_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-023-04555-1","volume":"6","author":"J Connors","year":"2023","unstructured":"Connors, J. et al. Lipid nanoparticles (LNP) induce activation and maturation of antigen presenting cells in young and aged individuals. Commun. Biol. 6, 1\u201313 (2023).","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"1382_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2021.11.001","volume":"54","author":"MG Alameh","year":"2021","unstructured":"Alameh, M. G. et al. Lipid nanoparticles enhance the efficacy of mRNA and protein subunit vaccines by inducing robust T follicular helper cell and humoral responses. Immunity 54, 2877\u20132892.e7 (2021).","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"1382_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1020134","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1020134","volume":"14","author":"A Pfeifle","year":"2023","unstructured":"Pfeifle, A. et al. DNA lipid nanoparticle vaccine targeting outer surface protein C affords protection against homologous Borrelia burgdorferi needle challenge in mice. Front Immunol. 14, 1020134 (2023).","journal-title":"Front Immunol."},{"key":"1382_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-44830-1","volume":"15","author":"LC Guimaraes","year":"2024","unstructured":"Guimaraes, L. C. et al. Nanoparticle-based DNA vaccine protects against SARS-CoV-2 variants in female preclinical models. Nat. Commun. 15, 1\u201319 (2024). 2024 15:1.","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"1382_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtm.2023.101169","volume":"32","author":"HC Liao","year":"2024","unstructured":"Liao, H. C. et al. Lipid nanoparticle-encapsulated DNA vaccine robustly induce superior immune responses to the mRNA vaccine in Syrian hamsters. Mol. Ther. Methods Clin. Dev. 32, 101169 (2024).","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Methods Clin. Dev."},{"key":"1382_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102035","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrm.2025.102035","volume":"6","author":"NJ Tursi","year":"2025","unstructured":"Tursi, N. J. et al. Modulation of lipid nanoparticle-formulated plasmid DNA drives innate immune activation promoting adaptive immunity. Cell Rep. Med 6, 102035 (2025).","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Med"},{"key":"1382_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12060666","volume":"12","author":"M Li","year":"2024","unstructured":"Li, M. et al. Lipid nanoparticles outperform electroporation in delivering therapeutic HPV DNA vaccines. Vaccines (Basel) 12, 666 (2024).","journal-title":"Vaccines (Basel)"},{"key":"1382_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1580","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11101580","volume":"11","author":"W Zhang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhang, W. et al. The expression kinetics and immunogenicity of lipid nanoparticles delivering plasmid DNA and mRNA in mice. Vaccines (Basel) 11, 1580 (2023).","journal-title":"Vaccines (Basel)"},{"key":"1382_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Patel, M. N. et al. Safer non-viral DNA delivery using lipid nanoparticles loaded with endogenous anti-inflammatory lipids. Nat. Biotechnol. 2025 1\u201311 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41587-025-02556-5 (2025).","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-025-02556-5"},{"key":"1382_CR30","unstructured":"F. D. A. Takes Action on Updated mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines to Better Protect Against Currently Circulating Variants | FDA. https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/news-events\/press-announcements\/fda-takes-action-updated-mrna-covid-19-vaccines-better-protect-against-currently-circulating."},{"key":"1382_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tamming, L. A. et al. DNA based vaccine expressing SARS-CoV-2 Spike-CD40L fusion protein confers protection against challenge in a Syrian Hamster Model. Front Immunol 12, 785349 (2022).","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.785349"},{"key":"1382_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtm.2024.101325","volume":"32","author":"L Tamming","year":"2024","unstructured":"Tamming, L. et al. Lipid nanoparticle encapsulation of a Delta spike-CD40L DNA vaccine improves effectiveness against Omicron challenge in Syrian hamsters. Mol. Ther. Methods Clin. Dev. 32, 101325 (2024).","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Methods Clin. Dev."},{"key":"1382_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e609","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(24)00505-X","volume":"24","author":"Y Kaku","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kaku, Y., Uriu, K., Okumura, K., Ito, J. & Sato, K. Virological characteristics of the SARS-CoV-2 KP.3.1.1 variant. Lancet Infect. Dis. 24, e609 (2024).","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"1382_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtn.2024.102293","volume":"35","author":"W Nunes da Silva","year":"2024","unstructured":"Nunes da Silva, W., Dias Moura Prazeres, P. H. & Goulart Guimar\u00e3es, P. P. PLA-PEG as an alternative to PEGylated lipids for nanoparticle-based DNA vaccination against SARS-CoV-2. Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids 35, 102293 (2024).","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids"},{"key":"1382_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01123-25","author":"DC Lai","year":"2025","unstructured":"Lai, D. C., Nguyen, T. N., Trinh, G. P., Steffen, D. & Vu, H. L. X. Lipid nanoparticle-encapsulated DNA vaccine induces balanced antibody and T-cell responses in pigs with maternally derived antibodies. J. Virol. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/JVI.01123-25 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"1382_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2025.110508","volume":"305","author":"DC Lai","year":"2025","unstructured":"Lai, D. C., Nguyen, T. N., Poonsuk, K., McVey, D. S. & Vu, H. L. X. Lipid nanoparticle-encapsulated DNA vaccine encoding African swine fever virus p54 antigen elicits robust immune responses in pigs. Vet. Microbiol 305, 110508 (2025).","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol"},{"key":"1382_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-65059-0","volume":"10","author":"EM Mucker","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mucker, E. M. et al. Lipid nanoparticle formulation increases efficiency of DNA-vectored vaccines\/immunoprophylaxis in animals including transchromosomic bovines. Sci. Rep. 10, 8764 (2020).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"1382_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1300093","volume":"193","author":"H AM","year":"2014","unstructured":"AM, H. et al. CD40 ligand preferentially modulates immune response and enhances protection against influenza virus. J. Immunol. 193, 722\u2013734 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"1382_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2015.01.017","volume":"33","author":"K Kometani","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kometani, K. & Kurosaki, T. Differentiation and maintenance of long-lived plasma cells. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 33, 64\u201369 (2015).","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"1382_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brook, B. et al. Adjuvantation of a SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine with controlled tissue-specific expression of an mRNA encoding IL-12p70. Sci. Transl. Med. 16, eadm8451 (2024).","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.ads5741"},{"key":"1382_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-024-02993-5","volume":"22","author":"L Wang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wang, L. et al. IL-7 promotes mRNA vaccine-induced long-term immunity. Immun. J. Nanobiotechnology 22, 716 (2024).","journal-title":"Immun. J. Nanobiotechnology"},{"key":"1382_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2015.08.007","volume":"217","author":"N Pardi","year":"2015","unstructured":"Pardi, N. et al. Expression kinetics of nucleoside-modified mRNA delivered in lipid nanoparticles to mice by various routes. J. Controlled Release 217, 345\u2013351 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Controlled Release"},{"key":"1382_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2505718122","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2505718122","volume":"122","author":"KL Swingle","year":"2025","unstructured":"Swingle, K. L. et al. Circular RNA lipid nanoparticle vaccine against SARS-CoV-2. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 122, e2505718122 (2025).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"1382_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2022.03.044","volume":"185","author":"L Qu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Qu, L. et al. Circular RNA vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 and emerging variants. Cell 185, 1728\u20131744.e16 (2022).","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"1382_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wan, J. et al. Circular RNA vaccines with long-term lymph node-targeting delivery stability after lyophilization induce potent and persistent immune responses. mBio 15, e0177523 (2024).","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.01775-23"},{"key":"1382_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-08842-1","volume":"641","author":"PS Krawczyk","year":"2025","unstructured":"Krawczyk, P. S. et al. Re-adenylation by TENT5A enhances efficacy of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines. Nature 641, 984\u2013992 (2025).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"1382_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robinson, M. J. et al. Long-lived plasma cells accumulate in the bone marrow at a constant rate from early in an immune response. Sci Immunol 7, eabm8389 (2022).","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abm8389"},{"key":"1382_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1853","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2021.07.008","volume":"54","author":"F Muecksch","year":"2021","unstructured":"Muecksch, F. et al. Affinity maturation of SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies confers potency, breadth, and resilience to viral escape mutations. Immunity 54, 1853\u20131868.e7 (2021).","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"1382_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1380","DOI":"10.1002\/cti2.1380","volume":"11","author":"K Colwill","year":"2022","unstructured":"Colwill, K. et al. A scalable serology solution for profiling humoral immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination. Clin. Transl. Immunol. 11, e1380 (2022).","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Immunol."},{"key":"1382_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3699","DOI":"10.1038\/s41596-020-0394-5","volume":"15","author":"J Nie","year":"2020","unstructured":"Nie, J. et al. Quantification of SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody by a pseudotyped virus-based assay. Nat. Protoc. 15, 3699\u20133715 (2020).","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"1382_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a118408","volume":"27","author":"LJ Reed","year":"1938","unstructured":"Reed, L. J. & Muench, H. A simple method of estimating fifty per cent endpoints. Am. J. Epidemiol. 27, 493\u2013497 (1938).","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"1382_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2196-x","volume":"581","author":"R W\u00f6lfel","year":"2020","unstructured":"W\u00f6lfel, R. et al. Virological assessment of hospitalized patients with COVID-2019. Nature 581, 465\u2013469 (2020).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"1382_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jim.2011.02.004","volume":"368","author":"M Zivcec","year":"2011","unstructured":"Zivcec, M., Safronetz, D., Haddock, E., Feldmann, H. & Ebihara, H. Validation of assays to monitor immune responses in the Syrian golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus). J. Immunol. Methods 368, 24\u201335 (2011).","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"1382_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1006\/meth.2001.1262","volume":"25","author":"KJ Livak","year":"2001","unstructured":"Livak, K. J. & Schmittgen, T. D. Analysis of relative gene expression data using real-time quantitative PCR and the 2\u2009\u2212\u2009\u0394\u0394CT method. Methods 25, 402\u2013408 (2001).","journal-title":"Methods"},{"key":"1382_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harris, G., Holbein, B. E., Zhou, H., Howard Xu, H. & Chen, W. Potential mechanisms of mucin-enhanced acinetobacter baumannii virulence in the mouse model of intraperitoneal infection. Infect Immun 87, e00591\u201319 (2019).","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00591-19"},{"key":"1382_CR56","first-page":"1","volume":"11","author":"CE Lien","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lien, C. E. et al. CpG-adjuvanted stable prefusion SARS-CoV-2 spike protein protected hamsters from SARS-CoV-2 challenge. Sci. Rep. 2021 11, 1\u20137 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep. 2021"}],"container-title":["npj Vaccines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41541-026-01382-3","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41541-026-01382-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41541-026-01382-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]],"date-time":"2026-06-12T00:03:38Z","timestamp":1781222618000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41541-026-01382-3"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1382"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41541-026-01382-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["2059-0105"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2059-0105","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]]},"assertion":[{"value":"15 October 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 January 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"31 January 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no Competing Financial or Non-Financial Interests to declare.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"115"}}