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Hum Behav"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Early temperament, such as socio-emotional development and activity level, varies widely, yet its underlying biological associations are not understood. We identified genetic variation associated with infant and toddler temperament using genome-wide association meta-analyses. We studied parent-rated emotionality, activity, shyness and sociability (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200943,963\u201372,663) in the second and third postnatal years and a cross-age average. Cross-age single nucleotide polymorphism heritabilities for emotionality, activity, shyness and sociability were 6.79% (95% confidence interval (CI), (4.71%, 8.87%)), 9.55% (95% CI, (7.04%, 12.06%)), 15.26% (95% CI, (12.24%, 18.28%)) and 3.42% (95% CI, (1.30%, 5.54%)), respectively. Ten genome-wide significant loci were discovered. Two loci colocalized with expression quantitative trait loci in the adult cortex:\n                    <jats:italic>RHEBL1<\/jats:italic>\n                    (posterior probability, 0.93; associated with activity) and\n                    <jats:italic>MR1<\/jats:italic>\n                    (posterior probability, 0.99; with emotionality). Genetic correlations were observed between early temperament and later outcomes, such as emotionality and adult neuroticism, activity and attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), sociability and autism, and shyness and adult extraversion. Multi-ancestry (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200956,083\u201378,894) and European-ancestry analyses gave similar results. Infant and toddler temperament is associated with genetic variation and shows genetic continuity with later outcomes.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-026-02486-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T13:27:41Z","timestamp":1782912461000},"page":"1821-1840","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Genome-wide association studies of infant and toddler temperament in European and multi-ancestry 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