{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,7]],"date-time":"2026-11-07T04:12:33Z","timestamp":1794024753495,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,15]],"date-time":"2025-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757894400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,15]],"date-time":"2025-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757894400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nat. Mater."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]},"DOI":"10.1038\/s41563-025-02332-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,15]],"date-time":"2025-09-15T15:02:54Z","timestamp":1757948574000},"page":"1533-1537","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Streaming flexoelectricity in saline ice"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"24","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2964-4726","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"X.","family":"Wen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7589-3937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Q.","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9949-4877","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J.","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7397-9123","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"U.","family":"Saeed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9237-4995","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S.","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0214-4828","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"G.","family":"Catalan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"2332_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wen, X. et al. Flexoelectricity and surface ferroelectricity of water ice. Nat. Phys. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41567-025-02995-6 (2025).","DOI":"10.1038\/s41567-025-02995-6"},{"key":"2332_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wikander, \u00d6. (ed.) Handbook of Ancient Water Technology (Brill, 2000).","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004473829"},{"key":"2332_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2014.56","volume":"9","author":"J Yin","year":"2014","unstructured":"Yin, J. et al. Generating electricity by moving a droplet of ionic liquid along graphene. Nat. Nanotechnol. 9, 378\u2013383 (2014).","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"2332_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-1985-6","volume":"578","author":"W Xu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Xu, W. et al. A droplet-based electricity generator with high instantaneous power density. Nature 578, 392\u2013396 (2020).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2332_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2016.300","volume":"12","author":"G Xue","year":"2017","unstructured":"Xue, G. et al. Water-evaporation-induced electricity with nanostructured carbon materials. Nat. Nanotechnol. 12, 317\u2013321 (2017).","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"2332_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joule.2022.02.002","volume":"6","author":"S Fang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Fang, S., Li, J., Xu, Y., Shen, C. & Guo, W. Evaporating potential. Joule 6, 690\u2013701 (2022).","journal-title":"Joule"},{"key":"2332_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2010-9","volume":"578","author":"X Liu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Liu, X. et al. Power generation from ambient humidity using protein nanowires. Nature 578, 550\u2013554 (2020).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2332_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1038\/s41578-023-00643-0","volume":"9","author":"J Xu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Xu, J. et al. Sustainable moisture energy. Nat. Rev. Mater. 9, 722\u2013737 (2024).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"2332_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.84.885","volume":"84","author":"T Bartels-Rausch","year":"2012","unstructured":"Bartels-Rausch, T. et al. Ice structures, patterns, and processes: a view across the icefields. Rev. Mod. Phys. 84, 885\u2013944 (2012).","journal-title":"Rev. Mod. Phys."},{"key":"2332_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-matsci-071312-121634","volume":"43","author":"P Zubko","year":"2013","unstructured":"Zubko, P., Catalan, G. & Tagantsev, A. K. Flexoelectric effect in solids. Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 43, 387\u2013421 (2013).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Mater. Res."},{"key":"2332_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"054109","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.80.054109","volume":"80","author":"R Maranganti","year":"2009","unstructured":"Maranganti, R. & Sharma, P. Atomistic determination of flexoelectric properties of crystalline dielectrics. Phys. Rev. B 80, 054109 (2009).","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"key":"2332_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.78.695","volume":"78","author":"JG Dash","year":"2006","unstructured":"Dash, J. G., Rempel, A. W. & Wettlaufer, J. S. The physics of premelted ice and its geophysical consequences. Rev. Mod. Phys. 78, 695\u2013741 (2006).","journal-title":"Rev. Mod. Phys."},{"key":"2332_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"124707","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4797468","volume":"138","author":"ES Thomson","year":"2013","unstructured":"Thomson, E. S., Hansen-Goos, H., Wettlaufer, J. S. & Wilen, L. Grain boundary melting in ice. J. Chem. Phys. 138, 124707 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"2332_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18526","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpcc.1c05461","volume":"125","author":"I de Almeida Ribeiro","year":"2021","unstructured":"de Almeida Ribeiro, I., de Aguiar Veiga, R. G. & de Koning, M. Effect of sodium chloride on internal quasi-liquid layers in ice Ih. J. Phys. Chem. C 125, 18526\u201318535 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"},{"key":"2332_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6062","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpcc.8b12435","volume":"123","author":"A Inagawa","year":"2019","unstructured":"Inagawa, A., Harada, M. & Okada, T. Charging of the ice\/solution interface by deprotonation of dangling bonds, ion adsorption, and ion uptake in an ice crystal as revealed by zeta potential determination. J. Phys. Chem. C 123, 6062\u20136069 (2019).","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"},{"key":"2332_CR16","unstructured":"Hunter, R. J. Foundations of Colloid Science (Oxford Univ. Press, 2001)."},{"key":"2332_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"148501","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.95.148501","volume":"95","author":"L Vrbka","year":"2005","unstructured":"Vrbka, L. & Jungwirth, P. Brine rejection from freezing salt solutions: a molecular dynamics study. Phys. Rev. Lett. 95, 148501 (2005).","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"2332_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-0961-5","volume":"567","author":"T Mouterde","year":"2019","unstructured":"Mouterde, T. et al. Molecular streaming and its voltage control in \u00e5ngstr\u00f6m-scale channels. Nature 567, 87\u201390 (2019).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2332_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(82)90174-9","volume":"15","author":"D Gross","year":"1982","unstructured":"Gross, D. & Williams, W. S. Streaming potential and the electromechanical response of physiologically-moist bone. J. Biomech. 15, 277\u2013295 (1982).","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"2332_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpcb.0c09156","volume":"125","author":"H Jalali","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jalali, H., Lotfi, E., Boya, R. & Neek-Amal, M. Abnormal dielectric constant of nanoconfined water between graphene layers in the presence of salt. J. Phys. Chem. B 125, 1604\u20131610 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"2332_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"061606","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.70.061606","volume":"70","author":"L Benatov","year":"2004","unstructured":"Benatov, L. & Wettlaufer, J. Abrupt grain boundary melting in ice. Phys. Rev. E 70, 061606 (2004).","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. E"},{"key":"2332_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"054501","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3039077","volume":"130","author":"H Lu","year":"2009","unstructured":"Lu, H., McCartney, S. A. & Sadtchenko, V. H\/D exchange kinetics in pure and HCl doped polycrystalline ice at temperatures near its melting point: structure, chemical transport, and phase transitions at grain boundaries. J. Chem. Phys. 130, 054501 (2009).","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"2332_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/s10832-007-9047-0","volume":"19","author":"TR Shrout","year":"2007","unstructured":"Shrout, T. R. & Zhang, S. J. Lead-free piezoelectric ceramics: alternatives for PZT? J. Electroceram. 19, 113\u2013126 (2007).","journal-title":"J. Electroceram."},{"key":"2332_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chu, B., Zhu, W., Li, N. & Cross, L. E. Flexure mode flexoelectric piezoelectric composites. J. Appl. Phys. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/1.3262495 (2009).","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3262495"},{"key":"2332_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmps.2007.03.016","volume":"55","author":"ND Sharma","year":"2007","unstructured":"Sharma, N. D., Maranganti, R. & Sharma, P. On the possibility of piezoelectric nanocomposites without using piezoelectric materials. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 55, 2328\u20132350 (2007).","journal-title":"J. Mech. Phys. Solids"},{"key":"2332_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-005-5916-6","volume":"41","author":"LE Cross","year":"2006","unstructured":"Cross, L. E. Flexoelectric effects: charge separation in insulating solids subjected to elastic strain gradients. J. Mater. Sci. 41, 53\u201363 (2006).","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"2332_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1804","DOI":"10.1063\/1.365983","volume":"82","author":"S-E Park","year":"1997","unstructured":"Park, S.-E. & Shrout, T. R. Ultrahigh strain and piezoelectric behavior in relaxor based ferroelectric single crystals. J. Appl. Phys. 82, 1804\u20131811 (1997).","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"2332_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114943","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cma.2022.114943","volume":"394","author":"W Zhang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhang, W. et al. Flexoelectric nanostructure design using explicit topology optimization. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 394, 114943 (2022).","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"2332_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsolstr.2014.05.018","volume":"51","author":"Q Deng","year":"2014","unstructured":"Deng, Q., Kammoun, M., Erturk, A. & Sharma, P. Nanoscale flexoelectric energy harvesting. Int. J. Solids Struct. 51, 3218\u20133225 (2014).","journal-title":"Int. J. Solids Struct."},{"key":"2332_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4902","DOI":"10.1039\/D1CS00778E","volume":"51","author":"X Wang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wang, X. et al. Hydrovoltaic technology: from mechanism to applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 51, 4902\u20134927 (2022).","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"2332_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aan3256","volume":"360","author":"M-M Yang","year":"2018","unstructured":"Yang, M.-M., Kim, D. J. & Alexe, M. Flexo-photovoltaic effect. Science 360, 904\u2013907 (2018).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2332_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101930","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matt.2024.11.024","volume":"8","author":"Z Wang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Wang, Z. et al. Strain-gradient-induced modulation of photovoltaic efficiency. Matter 8, 101930 (2025).","journal-title":"Matter"},{"key":"2332_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7481","DOI":"10.1029\/98JB02466","volume":"104","author":"EW Blake","year":"1999","unstructured":"Blake, E. W. & Clarke, G. K. Subglacial electrical phenomena. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 104, 7481\u20137495 (1999).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"2332_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24-1","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JE001841","volume":"107","author":"JG Borucki","year":"2002","unstructured":"Borucki, J. G., Khare, B. & Cruikshank, D. P. A new energy source for organic synthesis in Europa\u2019s surface ice. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 107, 24-1\u201324-5 (2002).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Planets"},{"key":"2332_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2020.114157","volume":"358","author":"FT Freund","year":"2021","unstructured":"Freund, F. T. et al. Stress-activated electric currents in icy planetary bodies: H2O2-doped H2O ices. Icarus 358, 114157 (2021).","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"2332_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2933-1","volume":"587","author":"J Kefauver","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kefauver, J., Ward, A. B. & Patapoutian, A. Discoveries in structure and physiology of mechanically activated ion channels. Nature 587, 567\u2013576 (2020).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2332_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1002\/elps.200305754","volume":"25","author":"BJ Kirby","year":"2004","unstructured":"Kirby, B. J. & Hasselbrink, E. F. Jr Zeta potential of microfluidic substrates: 1. Theory, experimental techniques, and effects on separations. Electrophoresis 25, 187\u2013202 (2004).","journal-title":"Electrophoresis"},{"key":"2332_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s10659-025-10145-5","volume":"157","author":"X Li","year":"2025","unstructured":"Li, X., Shen, Y., Jia, X., Zhang, Z. & Pan, E. Transient response of an ice-water-covered transversely isotropic poroelastic and multilayered medium under vertical P-wave incidence. J. Elasticity 157, 57 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Elasticity"},{"key":"2332_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wen, X. et al. Streaming flexoelectricity in saline ice. Figshare https:\/\/doi.org\/10.6084\/m9.figshare.29477843 (2025).","DOI":"10.6084\/m9.figshare.29477843"}],"container-title":["Nature Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41563-025-02332-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41563-025-02332-5","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41563-025-02332-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T14:18:46Z","timestamp":1759241926000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41563-025-02332-5"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,15]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["2332"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41563-025-02332-5","relation":{},"ISSN":["1476-1122","1476-4660"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1476-1122","type":"print"},{"value":"1476-4660","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,15]]},"assertion":[{"value":"3 December 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"28 July 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"15 September 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"X.W. and G.C. are the inventors of a pending patent application for this study. All other authors have no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}]}}