{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T20:57:30Z","timestamp":1792616250080,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":162,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769040000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769040000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]},"DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-026-01173-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T14:26:06Z","timestamp":1769091966000},"page":"381-394","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["The fate of dietary protein in the gastrointestinal tract and implications for colonic disease"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2848-0010","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rachel H.","family":"Davis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert V.","family":"Bryant","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9108-1712","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter R.","family":"Gibson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4905-5056","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alice S.","family":"Day","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"1173_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1039\/C5FO01530H","volume":"7","author":"G Wu","year":"2016","unstructured":"Wu, G. Dietary protein intake and human health. Food Funct. 7, 1251\u20131265 (2016).","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"1173_CR2","first-page":"150","volume":"2","author":"J Schmidhuber","year":"2005","unstructured":"Schmidhuber, J. & Shetty, P. The nutrition transition to 2030. Why developing countries are likely to bear the major burden. Food Econ. 2, 150\u2013166 (2005).","journal-title":"Food Econ."},{"key":"1173_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-7185(94)00020-8","volume":"26","author":"D Grigg","year":"1995","unstructured":"Grigg, D. The pattern of world protein consumption. Geoforum 26, 1\u201317 (1995).","journal-title":"Geoforum"},{"key":"1173_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1550-2783-4-8","volume":"4","author":"B Campbell","year":"2007","unstructured":"Campbell, B. et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 4, 8 (2007).","journal-title":"J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR5","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Red and processed meat in the context of health and the environment: many shades of red and green: information brief https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789240074828 (WHO, 2023)."},{"key":"1173_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1080\/01635589509514417","volume":"24","author":"KR Silvester","year":"1995","unstructured":"Silvester, K. R. & Cummings, J. H. Does digestibility of meat protein help explain large bowel cancer risk? Nutr. Cancer 24, 279\u2013288 (1995).","journal-title":"Nutr. Cancer"},{"key":"1173_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1488","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/72.6.1488","volume":"72","author":"EA Magee","year":"2000","unstructured":"Magee, E. A., Richardson, C. J., Hughes, R. & Cummings, J. H. Contribution of dietary protein to sulfide production in the large intestine: an in vitro and a controlled feeding study in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 72, 1488\u20131494 (2000).","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2759","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11182759","volume":"11","author":"E Zannini","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zannini, E., Sahin, A. W. & Arendt, E. K. Resistant protein: forms and functions. Foods 11, 2759 (2022).","journal-title":"Foods"},{"key":"1173_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3177\/jnsv.48.1","volume":"48","author":"N Kato","year":"2002","unstructured":"Kato, N. & Iwami, K. Resistant protein; its existence and function beneficial to health. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 48, 1\u20135 (2002).","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol."},{"key":"1173_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201100542","volume":"56","author":"K Windey","year":"2012","unstructured":"Windey, K., De Preter, V. & Verbeke, K. Relevance of protein fermentation to gut health. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 56, 184\u2013196 (2012).","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"1173_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12820","volume":"505","author":"LA David","year":"2014","unstructured":"David, L. A. et al. Diet rapidly and reproducibly alters the human gut microbiome. Nature 505, 559\u2013563 (2014).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"1173_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.13456","volume":"43","author":"CK Yao","year":"2016","unstructured":"Yao, C. K., Muir, J. G. & Gibson, P. R. Review article: insights into colonic protein fermentation, its modulation and potential health implications. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 43, 181\u2013196 (2016).","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"1173_CR13","unstructured":"Joint WHO\/FAO\/UNU Expert Consultation. Protein and Amino Acid Requirements in Human Nutrition. WHO Technical Report Series 935 (WHO, 2007)."},{"key":"1173_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2021.12.020","volume":"119","author":"L Day","year":"2022","unstructured":"Day, L., Cakebread, J. A. & Loveday, S. M. Food proteins from animals and plants: differences in the nutritional and functional properties. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 119, 428\u2013442 (2022).","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"1173_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.me.41.020190.001025","volume":"41","author":"RH Erickson","year":"1990","unstructured":"Erickson, R. H. & Kim, Y. S. Digestion and absorption of dietary protein. Annu. Rev. Med. 41, 133\u2013139 (1990).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Med."},{"key":"1173_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1152\/advan.00094.2009","volume":"34","author":"BE Goodman","year":"2010","unstructured":"Goodman, B. E. Insights into digestion and absorption of major nutrients in humans. Adv. Physiol. Educ. 34, 44\u201353 (2010).","journal-title":"Adv. Physiol. Educ."},{"key":"1173_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1177\/0148607115624084","volume":"40","author":"LJ Hoffer","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hoffer, L. J. Human protein and amino acid requirements. JPEN J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr. 40, 460\u2013474 (2016).","journal-title":"JPEN J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR18","unstructured":"Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Health Survey: Nutrition First Results-Foods and Nutrients https:\/\/www.abs.gov.au\/statistics\/health\/food-and-nutrition\/food-and-nutrients\/2011-12 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2014)."},{"key":"1173_CR19","unstructured":"Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Health Survey: Food and Nutrients https:\/\/www.abs.gov.au\/statistics\/health\/food-and-nutrition\/food-and-nutrients\/latest-release (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2025)."},{"key":"1173_CR20","unstructured":"International Food Information Council. Americans\u2019 Perceptions of Protein https:\/\/ific.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/07\/IFIC-Spotlight-Survey-Protein-Perceptions.pdf (2025)."},{"key":"1173_CR21","unstructured":"Wilson, B. Protein Mania: the Rich World\u2019s New Diet Obsession https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/news\/2019\/jan\/04\/protein-mania-the-rich-worlds-new-diet-obsession (The Guardian, 2019)."},{"key":"1173_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2405","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2019.1643287","volume":"60","author":"M Arenas-Jal","year":"2020","unstructured":"Arenas-Jal, M., Su\u00f1\u00e9-Negre, J., P\u00e9rez-Lozano, P. & Garc\u00eda-Montoya, E. Trends in the food and sports nutrition industry: a review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 60, 2405\u20132421 (2020).","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16081101","volume":"16","author":"CI Chapple","year":"2024","unstructured":"Chapple, C. I., Burnett, A. J., Woods, J. L. & Russell, C. G. A cross-sectional study of sports food consumption patterns, experiences, and perceptions amongst non-athletes in Australia. Nutrients 16, 1101 (2024).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1173_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn.81.2.341","volume":"81","author":"L Cordain","year":"2005","unstructured":"Cordain, L. et al. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81, 341\u2013354 (2005).","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151041","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.151041","volume":"807","author":"C Alae-Carew","year":"2022","unstructured":"Alae-Carew, C. et al. The role of plant-based alternative foods in sustainable and healthy food systems: Consumption trends in the UK. Sci. Total. Env. 807, 151041, (2022).","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Env."},{"key":"1173_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2016.165","volume":"13","author":"SJ O\u2019Keefe","year":"2016","unstructured":"O\u2019Keefe, S. J. Diet, microorganisms and their metabolites, and colon cancer. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 13, 691\u2013706 (2016).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"1173_CR27","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Colorectal Cancer https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/colorectal-cancer (WHO, 2023)."},{"key":"1173_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-017-1175-y","volume":"15","author":"RK Singh","year":"2017","unstructured":"Singh, R. K. et al. Influence of diet on the gut microbiome and implications for human health. J. Transl. Med. 15, 73 (2017).","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"1173_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjac054","volume":"16","author":"C Dong","year":"2022","unstructured":"Dong, C. et al. Meat intake is associated with a higher risk of ulcerative colitis in a large European prospective cohort study. J. Crohns Colitis 16, 1187\u20131196 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis"},{"key":"1173_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2657","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.22170","volume":"119","author":"SC Larsson","year":"2006","unstructured":"Larsson, S. C. & Wolk, A. Meat consumption and risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Int. J. Cancer 119, 2657\u20132664 (2006).","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"1173_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00261.2020","volume":"320","author":"F Blachier","year":"2021","unstructured":"Blachier, F. et al. Production of hydrogen sulfide by the intestinal microbiota and epithelial cells and consequences for the colonic and rectal mucosa. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol 320, 125\u2013135 (2021).","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol"},{"key":"1173_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-020-00375-4","volume":"18","author":"SK Gill","year":"2021","unstructured":"Gill, S. K., Rossi, M., Bajka, B. & Whelan, K. Dietary fibre in gastrointestinal health and disease. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 18, 101\u2013116 (2021).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"1173_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12102929","volume":"12","author":"W Petroski","year":"2020","unstructured":"Petroski, W. & Minich, D. M. Is there such a thing as \u201canti-nutrients\u201d? A narrative review of perceived problematic plant compounds. Nutrients 12, 2929 (2020).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1173_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN19760009","volume":"35","author":"JA Gibson","year":"1976","unstructured":"Gibson, J. A., Sladen, G. E. & Dawson, A. M. Protein absorption and ammonia production: the effects of dietary protein and removal of the colon. Br. J. Nutr. 35, 61\u201365 (1976).","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10030337","volume":"10","author":"D Moreno-P\u00e9rez","year":"2018","unstructured":"Moreno-P\u00e9rez, D. et al. Effect of a protein supplement on the gut microbiota of endurance athletes: a randomized, controlled, double-blind pilot study. Nutrients 10, 337 (2018).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1173_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11071635","volume":"11","author":"HF Dale","year":"2019","unstructured":"Dale, H. F. et al. Effects of a cod protein hydrolysate supplement on symptoms, gut integrity markers and fecal fermentation in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Nutrients 11, 1635 (2019).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1173_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.41.1.70","volume":"41","author":"B Geypens","year":"1997","unstructured":"Geypens, B. et al. Influence of dietary protein supplements on the formation of bacterial metabolites in the colon. Gut 41, 70\u201376 (1997).","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"1173_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1080\/01635589709514596","volume":"29","author":"KR Silvester","year":"1997","unstructured":"Silvester, K. R., Bingham, S. A., Pollock, J. R., Cummings, J. H. & O\u2019Neill, I. K. Effect of meat and resistant starch on fecal excretion of apparent N-nitroso compounds and ammonia from the human large bowel. Nutr. Cancer 29, 13\u201323 (1997).","journal-title":"Nutr. Cancer"},{"key":"1173_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/17.3.515","volume":"17","author":"SA Bingham","year":"1996","unstructured":"Bingham, S. A. et al. Does increased endogenous formation of N-nitroso compounds in the human colon explain the association between red meat and colon cancer? Carcinogenesis 17, 515\u2013523 (1996).","journal-title":"Carcinogenesis"},{"key":"1173_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2094","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/32.10.2094","volume":"32","author":"JH Cummings","year":"1979","unstructured":"Cummings, J. H., Hill, M. J., Bone, E. S., Branch, W. J. & Jenkins, D. J. The effect of meat protein and dietary fiber on colonic function and metabolism. II. Bacterial metabolites in feces and urine. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 32, 2094\u20132101 (1979).","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/jns.2020.15","volume":"9","author":"S Mitchell","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mitchell, S. et al. A period of 10 weeks of increased protein consumption does not alter faecal microbiota or volatile metabolites in healthy older men: a randomised controlled trial. J. Nutr. Sci. 9, e25 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Sci."},{"key":"1173_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-food-030117-012830","volume":"9","author":"K Korpela","year":"2018","unstructured":"Korpela, K. Diet, microbiota, and metabolic health: trade-off between saccharolytic and proteolytic fermentation. Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 9, 65\u201384 (2018).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"1173_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25040873","volume":"25","author":"F Rasheed","year":"2020","unstructured":"Rasheed, F., Markgren, J., Hedenqvist, M. & Johansson, E. Modeling to understand plant protein structure-function relationships \u2014 implications for seed storage proteins. Molecules 25, 873 (2020).","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"1173_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3367","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2019.1688249","volume":"60","author":"AGA S\u00e1","year":"2020","unstructured":"S\u00e1, A. G. A., Moreno, Y. M. F. & Carciofi, B. A. M. Food processing for the improvement of plant proteins digestibility. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 60, 3367\u20133386 (2020).","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqab354","volume":"115","author":"FM Guillin","year":"2022","unstructured":"Guillin, F. M. et al. Real ileal amino acid digestibility of pea protein compared to casein in healthy humans: a randomized trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 115, 353\u2013363 (2022).","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114599000410","volume":"81","author":"C Bos","year":"1999","unstructured":"Bos, C. et al. Assessment of net postprandial protein utilization of 15N-labelled milk nitrogen in human subjects. Br. J. Nutr. 81, 221\u2013226 (1999).","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajcnut.2023.02.020","volume":"117","author":"R Tessier","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tessier, R. et al. Digestive and metabolic bioavailability in healthy humans of 15N-labeled rapeseed and flaxseed protein incorporated in biscuits. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 117, 896\u2013902 (2023).","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqz159","volume":"110","author":"S Kashyap","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kashyap, S. et al. True ileal digestibility of legumes determined by dual-isotope tracer method in Indian adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 110, 873\u2013882 (2019).","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1716","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/128.10.1716","volume":"128","author":"P Evenepoel","year":"1998","unstructured":"Evenepoel, P. et al. Digestibility of cooked and raw egg protein in humans as assessed by stable isotope techniques. J. Nutr. 128, 1716\u20131722 (1998).","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2022.03.028","volume":"41","author":"L Teigen","year":"2022","unstructured":"Teigen, L. et al. Differential hydrogen sulfide production by a human cohort in response to animal- and plant-based diet interventions. Clin. Nutr. 41, 1153\u20131162 (2022).","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.117.158816","volume":"106","author":"M Beaumont","year":"2017","unstructured":"Beaumont, M. et al. Quantity and source of dietary protein influence metabolite production by gut microbiota and rectal mucosa gene expression: a randomized, parallel, double-blind trial in overweight humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 106, 1005\u20131019 (2017).","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"982","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.12491211","volume":"7","author":"KP Patel","year":"2012","unstructured":"Patel, K. P., Luo, F. J. G., Plummer, N. S., Hostetter, T. H. & Meyer, T. W. The production of p-cresol sulfate and indoxyl sulfate in vegetarians versus omnivores. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 7, 982\u2013988 (2012).","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"1173_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eggum, B. O. in Dietary Fibre \u2014 A Component of Food: Nutritional Function in Health and Disease (eds Schweizer, T. F. & Edwards, C. A.) 153\u2013165 (Springer, 1992).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4471-1928-9_8"},{"key":"1173_CR54","first-page":"589","volume":"49","author":"M Abrahamsson","year":"1995","unstructured":"Abrahamsson, M., Aman, P., Hallmans, G., Zhang, J. X. & Lundin, E. Excretion of amino acid residues from diets based on low-fibre wheat or high-fibre rye bread in human subjects with ileostomies. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 49, 589\u2013595 (1995).","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR55","first-page":"57","volume":"72","author":"G Macfarlane","year":"1992","unstructured":"Macfarlane, G., Gibson, G. & Cummings, J. Comparison of fermentation reactions in different regions of the human colon. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 72, 57\u201364 (1992).","journal-title":"J. Appl. Bacteriol."},{"key":"1173_CR56","unstructured":"Cummings, J. H. & Branch, W. J. in Dietary Fiber: Basic and Clinical Aspects (eds Vahouny, G. V. & Kritchevsky, D.) 131\u2013149 (Springer, 1986)."},{"key":"1173_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8916","DOI":"10.3390\/nu7115440","volume":"7","author":"E Boets","year":"2015","unstructured":"Boets, E. et al. Quantification of in vivo colonic short chain fatty acid production from inulin. Nutrients 7, 8916\u20138929 (2015).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1173_CR58","first-page":"510","volume":"9","author":"CK Yao","year":"2018","unstructured":"Yao, C. K. et al. Modulation of colonic hydrogen sulfide production by diet and mesalazine utilizing a novel gas-profiling technology. Gut Microbes 9, 510\u2013522 (2018).","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"1173_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/79.6.1020","volume":"79","author":"JG Muir","year":"2004","unstructured":"Muir, J. G. et al. Combining wheat bran with resistant starch has more beneficial effects on fecal indexes than does wheat bran alone. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 79, 1020\u20131028 (2004).","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1080\/00365520510023585","volume":"40","author":"S Lewis","year":"2005","unstructured":"Lewis, S., Brazier, J., Beard, D., Nazem, N. & Proctor, D. Effects of metronidazole and oligofructose on faecal concentrations of sulphate-reducing bacteria and their activity in human volunteers. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 40, 1296\u20131303 (2005).","journal-title":"Scand. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"1173_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/63.5.766","volume":"63","author":"A Birkett","year":"1996","unstructured":"Birkett, A., Muir, J., Phillips, J., Jones, G. & O\u2019Dea, K. Resistant starch lowers fecal concentrations of ammonia and phenols in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 63, 766\u2013772 (1996).","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1274","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-5085(91)90077-X","volume":"101","author":"A McIntyre","year":"1991","unstructured":"McIntyre, A., Young, G. P., Taranto, T., Gibson, P. R. & Ward, P. B. Different fibers have different regional effects on luminal contents of rat colon. Gastroenterology 101, 1274\u20131281 (1991).","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"1173_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.45.6.840","volume":"45","author":"M Govers","year":"1999","unstructured":"Govers, M., Gannon, N., Dunshea, F., Gibson, P. & Muir, J. Wheat bran affects the site of fermentation of resistant starch and luminal indexes related to colon cancer risk: a study in pigs. Gut 45, 840\u2013847 (1999).","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"1173_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.17629","volume":"58","author":"D So","year":"2023","unstructured":"So, D. et al. Detection of changes in regional colonic fermentation in response to supplementing a low FODMAP diet with dietary fibres by hydrogen concentrations, but not by luminal pH. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 58, 417\u2013428 (2023).","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"1173_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1093\/jaoac\/88.3.904","volume":"88","author":"SJ Meade","year":"2005","unstructured":"Meade, S. J., Reid, E. A. & Gerrard, J. A. The impact of processing on the nutritional quality of food proteins. J. AOAC Int. 88, 904\u2013922 (2005).","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"1173_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954422422000245","volume":"36","author":"SM Loveday","year":"2022","unstructured":"Loveday, S. M. Protein digestion and absorption: the influence of food processing. Nutr. Res. Rev. 36, 544\u2013559 (2022).","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"1173_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12020380","volume":"12","author":"UK Prodhan","year":"2020","unstructured":"Prodhan, U. K. et al. Comparable postprandial amino acid and gastrointestinal hormone responses to beef steak cooked using different methods: a randomised crossover trial. Nutrients 12, 380 (2020).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1173_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2221","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.115.216838","volume":"145","author":"M Oberli","year":"2015","unstructured":"Oberli, M. et al. High true ileal digestibility but not postprandial utilization of nitrogen from bovine meat protein in humans is moderately decreased by high-temperature, long-duration cooking. J. Nutr. 145, 2221\u20132228 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1368","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-020-04648-3","volume":"58","author":"K Liu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Liu, K., Zheng, J. & Chen, F. Heat-induced changes in the physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of rice protein fractions. J. Food Sci. Technol. 58, 1368\u20131377 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"1173_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2022.132884","volume":"387","author":"F Accardo","year":"2022","unstructured":"Accardo, F., Leni, G., Tedeschi, T., Prandi, B. & Sforza, S. Structural and chemical changes induced by temperature and pH hinder the digestibility of whey proteins. Food Chem. 387, 132884 (2022).","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"1173_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12082299","volume":"12","author":"J Trommelen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Trommelen, J. et al. Casein protein processing strongly modulates post-prandial plasma amino acid responses in vivo in humans. Nutrients 12, 2299 (2020).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1173_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2783","DOI":"10.1039\/C4FO00362D","volume":"5","author":"SM Loveday","year":"2014","unstructured":"Loveday, S. M., Peram, M. R., Singh, H., Ye, A. & Jameson, G. B. Digestive diversity and kinetic intrigue among heated and unheated \u03b2-lactoglobulin species. Food Funct. 5, 2783\u20132791 (2014).","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"1173_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-018-1610-8","volume":"58","author":"E Drummond","year":"2019","unstructured":"Drummond, E., O\u2019Sullivan, V., Sc Sri Harsha, P., Brennan, L. & Horner, K. Effects of a casein hydrolysate versus intact casein on gastric emptying and amino acid responses. Eur. J. Nutr. 58, 955\u2013964 (2019).","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-004-0448-4","volume":"43","author":"JA Calbet","year":"2004","unstructured":"Calbet, J. A. & Holst, J. J. Gastric emptying, gastric secretion and enterogastrone response after administration of milk proteins or their peptide hydrolysates in humans. Eur. J. Nutr. 43, 127\u2013139 (2004).","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.2009.27474","volume":"90","author":"R Koopman","year":"2009","unstructured":"Koopman, R. et al. Ingestion of a protein hydrolysate is accompanied by an accelerated in vivo digestion and absorption rate when compared with its intact protein. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 90, 106\u2013115 (2009).","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2017.1378865","volume":"59","author":"N Aljahdali","year":"2019","unstructured":"Aljahdali, N. & Carbonero, F. Impact of Maillard reaction products on nutrition and health: current knowledge and need to understand their fate in the human digestive system. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 59, 474\u2013487 (2019).","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.816749","volume":"9","author":"M Murray","year":"2022","unstructured":"Murray, M. et al. Reduced growth, altered gut microbiome and metabolite profile, and increased chronic kidney disease risk in young pigs consuming a diet containing highly resistant protein. Front. Nutr. 9, 816749 (2022).","journal-title":"Front. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/83.5.1082","volume":"83","author":"I Seiquer","year":"2006","unstructured":"Seiquer, I. et al. Diets rich in Maillard reaction products affect protein digestibility in adolescent males aged 11\u201314 y. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 83, 1082\u20131088 (2006).","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6723","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.5b01391","volume":"63","author":"M Hellwig","year":"2015","unstructured":"Hellwig, M. et al. Stability of individual Maillard reaction products in the presence of the human colonic microbiota. J. Agric. Food Chem. 63, 6723\u20136730 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"1173_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2008.03783.x","volume":"105","author":"D Mills","year":"2008","unstructured":"Mills, D. et al. Dietary glycated protein modulates the colonic microbiota towards a more detrimental composition in ulcerative colitis patients and non-ulcerative colitis subjects. J. Appl. Microbiol. 105, 706\u2013714 (2008).","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"1173_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2273","DOI":"10.1111\/ijfs.13817","volume":"53","author":"X Yuan","year":"2018","unstructured":"Yuan, X. et al. Accumulation and effects of dietary advanced glycation end products on the gastrointestinal tract in rats. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 53, 2273\u20132281 (2018).","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"1173_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12092497","volume":"12","author":"R Mastrocola","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mastrocola, R. et al. Effects of exogenous dietary advanced glycation end products on the cross-talk mechanisms linking microbiota to metabolic inflammation. Nutrients 12, 2497 (2020).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1173_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1007\/s00228-023-03534-z","volume":"79","author":"LGT Shanika","year":"2023","unstructured":"Shanika, L. G. T., Reynolds, A., Pattison, S. & Braund, R. Proton pump inhibitor use: systematic review of global trends and practices. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 79, 1159\u20131172 (2023).","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"1173_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1053\/bega.2000.0197","volume":"15","author":"P Evenepoel","year":"2001","unstructured":"Evenepoel, P. Alteration in digestion and absorption of nutrients during profound acid suppression. Best. Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 15, 539\u2013551 (2001).","journal-title":"Best. Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"1173_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2036.1998.00377.x","volume":"12","author":"P Evenepoel","year":"1998","unstructured":"Evenepoel, P. et al. Evidence for impaired assimilation and increased colonic fermentation of protein, related to gastric acid suppression therapy. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 12, 1011\u20131019 (1998).","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"1173_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo12111027","volume":"12","author":"O Kostiuchenko","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kostiuchenko, O. et al. Effects of proteases from pineapple and papaya on protein digestive capacity and gut microbiota in healthy C57BL\/6 mice and dose-manner response on mucosal permeability in human reconstructed intestinal 3D tissue model. Metabolites 12, 1027 (2022).","journal-title":"Metabolites"},{"key":"1173_CR87","first-page":"73","volume":"19","author":"J Wiboonsirikul","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wiboonsirikul, J., Klahan, R. & Khuwijitjaru, P. Extraction of crude bromelain from pineapple (Ananas comosus L.) fruit waste and it\u2019s in vitro protein digestibility. J. Agric. Sci. 19, 73\u201388 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Agric. Sci."},{"key":"1173_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.5187\/jast.2023.e6","volume":"65","author":"SY Lee","year":"2023","unstructured":"Lee, S. Y. et al. Methods for improving meat protein digestibility in older adults. J. Anim. Sci. Technol. 65, 32\u201356 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"1173_CR89","unstructured":"Garces Ortega, M. Effect of Proteolytic Enzyme and Fiber of Papaya Fruit on Human Digestive Health Thesis, Univ. Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (2012)."},{"key":"1173_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-020-02363-5","volume":"60","author":"S Park","year":"2021","unstructured":"Park, S. et al. The impact of Hayward green kiwifruit on dietary protein digestion and protein metabolism. Eur. J. Nutr. 60, 1141\u20131148 (2021).","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1007\/s12602-020-09656-5","volume":"12","author":"R J\u00e4ger","year":"2020","unstructured":"J\u00e4ger, R. et al. Probiotic administration increases amino acid absorption from plant protein: a placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind, multicenter, crossover study. Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins 12, 1330\u20131339 (2020).","journal-title":"Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins"},{"key":"1173_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s12602-022-10028-4","volume":"16","author":"KE Walden","year":"2022","unstructured":"Walden, K. E. et al. Probiotic BC30 improves amino acid absorption from plant protein concentrate in older women. Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins 16, 125\u2013137 (2022).","journal-title":"Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins"},{"key":"1173_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12986-020-00515-2","volume":"17","author":"RA Stecker","year":"2020","unstructured":"Stecker, R. A. et al. Bacillus coagulans GBI-30, 6086 improves amino acid absorption from milk protein. Nutr. Metab. 17, 93 (2020).","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"1173_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"G159","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00319.2017","volume":"315","author":"MS Gilbert","year":"2018","unstructured":"Gilbert, M. S., Ijssennagger, N., Kies, A. K. & van Mil, S. W. Protein fermentation in the gut; implications for intestinal dysfunction in humans, pigs, and poultry. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 315, G159\u2013G170 (2018).","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"1173_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2016.03.006","volume":"306","author":"KS Smirnov","year":"2016","unstructured":"Smirnov, K. S. et al. Challenges of metabolomics in human gut microbiota research. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 306, 266\u2013279 (2016).","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"1173_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665120000026","volume":"80","author":"JM Rhodes","year":"2021","unstructured":"Rhodes, J. M. Nutrition and gut health: the impact of specific dietary components \u2014 it\u2019s not just five-a-day. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 80, 9\u201318 (2021).","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"1173_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.15818","volume":"52","author":"PR Gibson","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gibson, P. R., Halmos, E. P. & Muir, J. G. FODMAPS, prebiotics and gut health \u2014 the FODMAP hypothesis revisited. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 52, 233\u2013246 (2020).","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"1173_CR98","first-page":"4540","volume":"42","author":"A Morita","year":"1982","unstructured":"Morita, A., Tsao, D. & Kim, Y. S. Effect of sodium butyrate on alkaline phosphatase in HRT-18, a human rectal cancer cell line. Cancer Res. 42, 4540\u20134545 (1982).","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"1173_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.1986.tb01934.x","volume":"2","author":"G Macfarlane","year":"1986","unstructured":"Macfarlane, G. & Allison, C. Utilisation of protein by human gut bacteria. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 2, 19\u201324 (1986).","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Ecol."},{"key":"1173_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1080\/17474124.2017.1343143","volume":"11","author":"M Vancamelbeke","year":"2017","unstructured":"Vancamelbeke, M. & Vermeire, S. The intestinal barrier: a fundamental role in health and disease. Expert. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 11, 821\u2013834 (2017).","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"1173_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2021.0004","volume":"36","author":"AG Buret","year":"2022","unstructured":"Buret, A. G., Allain, T., Motta, J.-P. & Wallace, J. L. Effects of hydrogen sulfide on the microbiome: from toxicity to therapy. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 36, 211\u2013219 (2022).","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"1173_CR102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2022.105367","volume":"100","author":"E Mutuyemungu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Mutuyemungu, E., Singh, M., Liu, S. & Rose, D. J. Intestinal gas production by the gut microbiota: a review. J. Funct. Foods 100, 105367 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"1173_CR103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.43.1.100","volume":"43","author":"F Suarez","year":"1998","unstructured":"Suarez, F., Springfield, J. & Levitt, M. Identification of gases responsible for the odour of human flatus and evaluation of a device purported to reduce this odour. Gut 43, 100\u2013104 (1998).","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"1173_CR104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1080\/10426507.2012.736894","volume":"188","author":"A Tangerman","year":"2013","unstructured":"Tangerman, A. & Winkel, E. G. Volatile sulfur compounds as the cause of bad breath: a review. Phosphorus Sulfur. Silicon Relat. Elem. 188, 396\u2013402 (2013).","journal-title":"Phosphorus Sulfur. Silicon Relat. Elem."},{"key":"1173_CR105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.142528","volume":"755","author":"S Trabue","year":"2021","unstructured":"Trabue, S., Kerr, B., Scoggin, K., Andersen, D. & Van Weelden, M. Swine diets impact manure characteristics and gas emissions: part I protein level. Sci. Total. Env. 755, 142528 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Env."},{"key":"1173_CR106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjab219","volume":"16","author":"V Peters","year":"2022","unstructured":"Peters, V. et al. Western and carnivorous dietary patterns are associated with greater likelihood of IBD development in a large prospective population-based cohort. J. Crohns Colitis 16, 931\u2013939 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis"},{"key":"1173_CR107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2003.024828","volume":"53","author":"S Jowett","year":"2004","unstructured":"Jowett, S. et al. Influence of dietary factors on the clinical course of ulcerative colitis: a prospective cohort study. Gut 53, 1479\u20131484 (2004).","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"1173_CR108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S17","DOI":"10.14309\/01.ajg.0000995988.33419.a7","volume":"118","author":"A Zinger","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zinger, A., Barnes, E. L., Weisbein, L., Kappelman, M. & Micic, D. High red meat consumption is associated with greater risk of ulcerative colitis flare [abstract S61]. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 118, S17 (2023).","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"1173_CR109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.39.1.1","volume":"39","author":"M Pitcher","year":"1996","unstructured":"Pitcher, M. & Cummings, J. Hydrogen sulphide: a bacterial toxin in ulcerative colitis? Gut 39, 1\u20134 (1996).","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"1173_CR110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1555","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)61120-8","volume":"351","author":"WE Roediger","year":"1998","unstructured":"Roediger, W. E. Decreased sulphur aminoacid intake in ulcerative colitis. Lancet 351, 1555 (1998).","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"1173_CR111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.953962","volume":"12","author":"S Zhu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhu, S. et al. Composition and diverse differences of intestinal microbiota in ulcerative colitis patients. Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol. 12, 953962 (2022).","journal-title":"Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"1173_CR112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1530","DOI":"10.1007\/DCR.0b013e3181f1e620","volume":"53","author":"F Rowan","year":"2010","unstructured":"Rowan, F. et al. Desulfovibrio bacterial species are increased in ulcerative colitis. Dis. Colon. Rectum 53, 1530\u20131536 (2010).","journal-title":"Dis. Colon. Rectum"},{"key":"1173_CR113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2014-307198","volume":"64","author":"SL James","year":"2015","unstructured":"James, S. L. et al. Abnormal fibre usage in UC in remission. Gut 64, 562\u2013570 (2015).","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"1173_CR114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2022.09.034","volume":"164","author":"HK Armstrong","year":"2023","unstructured":"Armstrong, H. K. et al. Unfermented \u03b2-fructan fibers fuel inflammation in select inflammatory bowel disease patients. Gastroenterology 164, 228\u2013240 (2023).","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"1173_CR115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.3109\/09637486.2013.825700","volume":"65","author":"NA Khalil","year":"2014","unstructured":"Khalil, N. A., Walton, G. E., Gibson, G. R., Tuohy, K. M. & Andrews, S. C. In vitro batch cultures of gut microbiota from healthy and ulcerative colitis (UC) subjects suggest that sulphate-reducing bacteria levels are raised in UC and by a protein-rich diet. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 65, 79\u201388 (2014).","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.1991.tb04799.x","volume":"86","author":"G Gibson","year":"1991","unstructured":"Gibson, G., Cummings, J. & Macfarlane, G. Growth and activities of sulphate-reducing bacteria in gut contents of healthy subjects and patients with ulcerative colitis. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 86, 103\u2013111 (1991).","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"1173_CR117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.1998.083_c.x","volume":"93","author":"J Levine","year":"1998","unstructured":"Levine, J., Ellis, C. J., Furne, J. K., Springfield, J. & Levitt, M. D. Fecal hydrogen sulfide production in ulcerative colitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 93, 83\u201387 (1998).","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"1173_CR118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1002\/ibd.21894","volume":"18","author":"V De Preter","year":"2012","unstructured":"De Preter, V. et al. Impaired butyrate oxidation in ulcerative colitis is due to decreased butyrate uptake and a defect in the oxidation pathway. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 18, 1127\u20131136 (2012).","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"1173_CR119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2036.2008.03612.x","volume":"27","author":"W Roediger","year":"2008","unstructured":"Roediger, W. nitric oxide from dysbiotic bacterial respiration of nitrate in the pathogenesis and as a target for therapy of ulcerative colitis. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 27, 531\u2013541 (2008).","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"1173_CR120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.29.4.516","volume":"29","author":"P Gibson","year":"1988","unstructured":"Gibson, P., Van de Pol, E., Barratt, P. & Doe, W. Ulcerative colitis \u2014 a disease characterised by the abnormal colonic epithelial cell? Gut 29, 516\u2013521 (1988).","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"1173_CR121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.7812\/TPP\/18-220","volume":"23","author":"M Chiba","year":"2019","unstructured":"Chiba, M. et al. Relapse prevention by plant-based diet incorporated into induction therapy for ulcerative colitis: a single-group trial. Perm. J. 23, 18\u2013220 (2019).","journal-title":"Perm. J."},{"key":"1173_CR122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1690","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/nxac093","volume":"152","author":"AS Day","year":"2022","unstructured":"Day, A. S. et al. Therapeutic potential of the 4 strategies to SUlfide-REduction (4-SURE) diet in adults with mild to moderately active ulcerative colitis: an open-label feasibility study. J. Nutr. 152, 1690\u20131701 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13113736","volume":"13","author":"C Sarbagili-Shabat","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sarbagili-Shabat, C. et al. A novel UC exclusion diet and antibiotics for treatment of mild to moderate pediatric ulcerative colitis: a prospective open-label pilot study. Nutrients 13, 3736 (2021).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1173_CR124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3344","volume":"12","author":"P Louis","year":"2014","unstructured":"Louis, P., Hold, G. L. & Flint, H. J. The gut microbiota, bacterial metabolites and colorectal cancer. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 12, 661\u2013672 (2014).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"1173_CR125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-021-00534-x","volume":"21","author":"M Schmitt","year":"2021","unstructured":"Schmitt, M. & Greten, F. R. The inflammatory pathogenesis of colorectal cancer. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 21, 653\u2013667 (2021).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"1173_CR126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1093\/mutage\/gep070","volume":"25","author":"AM Joosen","year":"2010","unstructured":"Joosen, A. M. et al. Effect of dietary meat and fish on endogenous nitrosation, inflammation and genotoxicity of faecal water. Mutagenesis 25, 243\u2013247 (2010).","journal-title":"Mutagenesis"},{"key":"1173_CR127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.d6617","volume":"343","author":"D Aune","year":"2011","unstructured":"Aune, D. et al. Dietary fibre, whole grains, and risk of colorectal cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. BMJ 343, d6617 (2011).","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"1173_CR128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2383","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2021-324891","volume":"70","author":"D So","year":"2021","unstructured":"So, D., Gibson, P. R., Muir, J. G. & Yao, C. K. Dietary fibres and IBS: translating functional characteristics to clinical value in the era of personalised medicine. Gut 70, 2383\u20132394 (2021).","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"1173_CR129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.4251\/wjgo.v6.i2.41","volume":"6","author":"H Zeng","year":"2014","unstructured":"Zeng, H., Lazarova, D. L. & Bordonaro, M. Mechanisms linking dietary fiber, gut microbiota and colon cancer prevention. World J. Gastrointest. Oncol. 6, 41\u201351 (2014).","journal-title":"World J. Gastrointest. Oncol."},{"key":"1173_CR130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.14795","volume":"36","author":"Y Li","year":"2024","unstructured":"Li, Y. & Tong, W. D. Association between dietary protein intake and constipation: data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005\u20132010. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 36, e14795 (2024).","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"1173_CR131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2009.02.023","volume":"7","author":"GL Austin","year":"2009","unstructured":"Austin, G. L. et al. A very low-carbohydrate diet improves symptoms and quality of life in diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 7, 706\u2013708.e1 (2009).","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"1173_CR132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2013.09.046","volume":"146","author":"EP Halmos","year":"2014","unstructured":"Halmos, E. P., Power, V. A., Shepherd, S. J., Gibson, P. R. & Muir, J. G. A diet low in FODMAPs reduces symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 146, 67\u201375 (2014).","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"1173_CR133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foohum.2023.12.007","volume":"2","author":"A Ramani","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ramani, A., Hazra, T., Mudgil, S. & Mudgil, D. Emerging potential of whey proteins in prevention of cancer. Food Humanity 2, 100199 (2024).","journal-title":"Food Humanity"},{"key":"1173_CR134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1038\/s41578-019-0156-6","volume":"5","author":"TD Brown","year":"2020","unstructured":"Brown, T. D., Whitehead, K. A. & Mitragotri, S. Materials for oral delivery of proteins and peptides. Nat. Rev. Mater. 5, 127\u2013148 (2020).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"1173_CR135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1580","DOI":"10.1111\/jgh.15311","volume":"36","author":"CK Yao","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yao, C. K. et al. Effects of fiber intake on intestinal pH, transit, and predicted oral mesalamine delivery in patients with ulcerative colitis. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 36, 1580\u20131589 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"1173_CR136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2019.11.002","volume":"39","author":"SC Bischoff","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bischoff, S. C. et al. ESPEN practical guideline: clinical nutrition in inflammatory bowel disease. Clin. Nutr. 39, 632\u2013653 (2020).","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16162673","volume":"16","author":"S Singar","year":"2024","unstructured":"Singar, S., Nagpal, R., Arjmandi, B. H. & Akhavan, N. S. Personalized nutrition: tailoring dietary recommendations through genetic insights. Nutrients 16, 2673 (2024).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1173_CR138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2018.09.017","volume":"17","author":"C Allaband","year":"2019","unstructured":"Allaband, C. et al. Microbiome 101: studying, analyzing, and interpreting gut microbiome data for clinicians. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 17, 218\u2013230 (2019).","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"1173_CR139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40246-023-00561-w","volume":"17","author":"G Lagoumintzis","year":"2023","unstructured":"Lagoumintzis, G. & Patrinos, G. P. Triangulating nutrigenomics, metabolomics and microbiomics toward personalized nutrition and healthy living. Hum. Genomics 17, 109 (2023).","journal-title":"Hum. Genomics"},{"key":"1173_CR140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1006\/abbi.1996.0120","volume":"327","author":"J Jaskiewicz","year":"1996","unstructured":"Jaskiewicz, J. et al. Catabolism of isobutyrate by colonocytes. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 327, 265\u2013270 (1996).","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"1173_CR141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.769501","volume":"12","author":"X Li","year":"2021","unstructured":"Li, X., Zhang, B., Hu, Y. & Zhao, Y. New insights into gut-bacteria-derived indole and its derivatives in intestinal and liver diseases. Front. Pharmacol. 12, 769501 (2021).","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"1173_CR142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2025.1665421","volume":"16","author":"Y Zhang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zhang, Y. et al. Unraveling p-cresol: from biosynthesis to biological and biochemical activities. Front. Pharmacol. 16, 1665421 (2025).","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"1173_CR143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2013.01.003","volume":"69","author":"A-M Davila","year":"2013","unstructured":"Davila, A.-M. et al. Re-print of \u201cIntestinal luminal nitrogen metabolism: role of the gut microbiota and consequences for the host\u201d. Pharmacol. Res. 69, 114\u2013126 (2013).","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"1173_CR144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/128.5.843","volume":"128","author":"H Ichikawa","year":"1998","unstructured":"Ichikawa, H. & Sakata, T. Stimulation of epithelial cell proliferation of isolated distal colon of rats by continuous colonic infusion of ammonia or short-chain fatty acids is nonadditive. J. Nutr. 128, 843\u2013847 (1998).","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1097\/00000658-197510000-00007","volume":"182","author":"E Bradley III","year":"1975","unstructured":"Bradley III, E., Isaacs, J., Hersh, T., Davidson, E. D. & Millikan, W. Nutritional consequences of total gastrectomy. Ann. Surg. 182, 415\u2013429 (1975).","journal-title":"Ann. Surg."},{"key":"1173_CR146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2003.030601","volume":"53","author":"Crenn","year":"2004","unstructured":"Crenn et al. Net digestive absorption and adaptive hyperphagia in adult short bowel patients. Gut 53, 1279\u20131286 (2004).","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"1173_CR147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23S","DOI":"10.1177\/0148607114525210","volume":"38","author":"KA Tappenden","year":"2014","unstructured":"Tappenden, K. A. Intestinal adaptation following resection. JPEN J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr. 38, 23S\u201331S (2014).","journal-title":"JPEN J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1016\/S1521-6918(04)00060-5","volume":"18","author":"J Keller","year":"2004","unstructured":"Keller, J., Panter, H. & Layer, P. Management of the short bowel syndrome after extensive small bowel resection. Best. Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 18, 977\u2013992 (2004).","journal-title":"Best. Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"1173_CR149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8010004","volume":"8","author":"ND Luscombe-Marsh","year":"2016","unstructured":"Luscombe-Marsh, N. D. et al. Plasma free amino acid responses to intraduodenal whey protein, and relationships with insulin, glucagon-like peptide-1 and energy intake in lean healthy men. Nutrients 8, 1, 4 (2016).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1173_CR150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7010019","volume":"7","author":"NE Diether","year":"2019","unstructured":"Diether, N. E. & Willing, B. P. Microbial fermentation of dietary protein: an important factor in diet\u2013microbe\u2013host interaction. Microorganisms 7, 19 (2019).","journal-title":"Microorganisms"},{"key":"1173_CR151","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.202101136","volume":"66","author":"S Dhakal","year":"2022","unstructured":"Dhakal, S., Moazzami, Z., Perry, C. & Dey, M. Effects of lean pork on microbiota and microbial-metabolite trimethylamine-N-oxide: a randomized controlled non-inferiority feeding trial based on the dietary guidelines for Americans. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 66, e2101136 (2022).","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"1173_CR152","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.2174\/1389203721666200212095503","volume":"21","author":"A Abdallah","year":"2020","unstructured":"Abdallah, A., Elemba, E., Zhong, Q. & Sun, Z. Gastrointestinal gut microbiota: with special emphasis on host nutrition. Curr. Protein Pept. Sci. 21, 785\u2013798 (2020).","journal-title":"Curr. Protein Pept. Sci."},{"key":"1173_CR153","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.me.29.020178.000531","volume":"29","author":"HJ Freeman","year":"1978","unstructured":"Freeman, H. J. & Kim, Y. S. Digestion and absorption of protein. Annu. Rev. Med. 29, 99\u2013116 (1978).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Med."},{"key":"1173_CR154","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutos.2020.12.006","volume":"36","author":"J Trommelen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Trommelen, J., Tom\u00e9, D. & van Loon, L. J. Gut amino acid absorption in humans: concepts and relevance for postprandial metabolism. Clin. Nutr. Open. Sci. 36, 43\u201355 (2021).","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. Open. Sci."},{"key":"1173_CR155","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1024\/0300-9831\/a000056","volume":"81","author":"PM Amb\u00fchl","year":"2011","unstructured":"Amb\u00fchl, P. M. Protein intake in renal and hepatic disease. Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 81, 162\u2013172 (2011).","journal-title":"Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res."},{"key":"1173_CR156","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00726-009-0269-0","volume":"37","author":"G Wu","year":"2009","unstructured":"Wu, G. Amino acids: metabolism, functions, and nutrition. Amino acids 37, 1\u201317 (2009).","journal-title":"Amino acids"},{"key":"1173_CR157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2009.02285.x","volume":"57","author":"E Gaffney-Stomberg","year":"2009","unstructured":"Gaffney-Stomberg, E., Insogna, K. L., Rodriguez, N. R. & Kerstetter, J. E. Increasing dietary protein requirements in elderly people for optimal muscle and bone health. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 57, 1073\u20131079 (2009).","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"1173_CR158","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2898","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2021.02.005","volume":"40","author":"M Muscaritoli","year":"2021","unstructured":"Muscaritoli, M. et al. ESPEN practical guideline: clinical nutrition in cancer. Clin. Nutr. 40, 2898\u20132913 (2021).","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR159","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1850S","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/130.7.1850S","volume":"130","author":"SM Hodgkinson","year":"2000","unstructured":"Hodgkinson, S. M. & Darragh, A. J. Quantifying the digestibility of dietary protein. J. Nutr. 130, 1850S\u20131856S (2000).","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR160","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmab134","volume":"13","author":"S Bandyopadhyay","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bandyopadhyay, S. et al. Evaluation of protein quality in humans and insights on stable isotope approaches to measure digestibility \u2014 a review. Adv. Nutr. 13, 1131\u20131143 (2022).","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"1173_CR161","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14050947","volume":"14","author":"S Adhikari","year":"2022","unstructured":"Adhikari, S., Schop, M., de Boer, I. J. M. & Huppertz, T. Protein quality in perspective: a review of protein quality metrics and their applications. Nutrients 14, 947 (2022).","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"1173_CR162","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.17844","volume":"59","author":"PA Thwaites","year":"2024","unstructured":"Thwaites, P. A. et al. Current status and future directions of ingestible electronic devices in gastroenterology. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 59, 459\u2013474 (2024).","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."}],"container-title":["Nature Reviews Gastroenterology &amp; Hepatology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41575-026-01173-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41575-026-01173-0","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41575-026-01173-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T12:03:21Z","timestamp":1777550601000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41575-026-01173-0"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]]},"references-count":162,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["1173"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41575-026-01173-0","relation":{},"ISSN":["1759-5045","1759-5053"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1759-5045","type":"print"},{"value":"1759-5053","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]]},"assertion":[{"value":"5 January 2026","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"22 January 2026","order":2,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"R.V.B. has received grant, research support or speaker fees (all paid to his employer for research support) from AbbVie, Ferring, Janssen, Shire, Takeda, GSK and Emerge Health; and is a shareholder in Biomebank. P.R.G. is a consultant or advisory board member for Anatara, Atmo Biosciences, Topas and Comvita; has received research grants for investigator-driven studies from Mindset Health, and speaker honoraria from Dr Falk Pharma and Mindset Health Pty.; and is a shareholder in Atmo Biosciences. His salary is derived from sales of a digital application (Monash University FODMAP diet app), patient booklets cookbooks and online courses, all of which relate to the low FODMAP diet therapy. The other authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}]}}