{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T03:48:08Z","timestamp":1792813688517,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]],"date-time":"2025-10-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761523200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]],"date-time":"2025-10-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761523200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000025","name":"U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | National Institute of Mental Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 MH117996"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 MH117996"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000025","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000025","name":"U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | National Institute of Mental Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 MH116675"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 MH116675"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000025","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nat Neurosci"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>In humans and other primates, adolescence is associated with improvement in cognitive abilities and with changes in brain structure and connectivity. However, how these changes affect neural activity underlying cognitive performance remains unknown. Here we conducted a multilevel, longitudinal study of monkey adolescent neurocognitive development by tracking behavior, neuronal activity and anatomical imaging measures. The trajectory of prefrontal neural activity accounted well for working memory improvements. Complex aspects of activity changed progressively during adolescence, but even simpler attributes, such as baseline rate and variability, had predictive power over behavior. Trajectories of neural activity and cognitive performance were well predicted by maturation of long-distance white matter tracts linking the frontal lobe with other brain areas but, surprisingly, not by decreases in brain volume and thickness, which underlie cognitive changes in humans. Our results link white matter maturation to neural activity changes in adolescent cognitive development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-025-02076-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]],"date-time":"2025-10-27T10:03:26Z","timestamp":1761559406000},"page":"2344-2355","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Longitudinal measures of monkey brain structure and activity through adolescence predict cognitive maturation"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0221-5289","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junda","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0712-7330","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cl\u00e9ment M.","family":"Garin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xue-Lian","family":"Qi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-5195-5172","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Machado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhengyang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1510-7284","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suliann","family":"Ben Hamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Terrence R.","family":"Stanford","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7411-5693","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emilio","family":"Salinas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2392-8293","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher T.","family":"Whitlow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adam W.","family":"Anderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xin Maizie","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Finnegan J.","family":"Calabro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beatriz","family":"Luna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7441-022X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christos","family":"Constantinidis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"2076_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-071714-034054","volume":"38","author":"B Luna","year":"2015","unstructured":"Luna, B., Marek, S., Larsen, B., Tervo-Clemmens, B. & Chahal, R. An integrative model of the maturation of cognitive control. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 38, 151\u2013170 (2015).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.40.2.177","volume":"40","author":"SE Gathercole","year":"2004","unstructured":"Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Ambridge, B. & Wearing, H. The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age. Dev. Psychol. 40, 177\u2013190 (2004).","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"2076_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2019.07.004","volume":"42","author":"C Constantinidis","year":"2019","unstructured":"Constantinidis, C. & Luna, B. Neural substrates of inhibitory control maturation in adolescence. Trends Neurosci. 42, 604\u2013616 (2019).","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2017.01.016","volume":"157","author":"DJ Simmonds","year":"2017","unstructured":"Simmonds, D. J., Hallquist, M. N. & Luna, B. Protracted development of executive and mnemonic brain systems underlying working memory in adolescence: a longitudinal fMRI study. Neuroimage 157, 695\u2013704 (2017).","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2076_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1357","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2004.00745.x","volume":"75","author":"B Luna","year":"2004","unstructured":"Luna, B., Garver, K. E., Urban, T. A., Lazar, N. A. & Sweeney, J. A. Maturation of cognitive processes from late childhood to adulthood. Child Dev. 75, 1357\u20131372 (2004).","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"2076_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5090","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2841-19.2020","volume":"40","author":"MD Rosenberg","year":"2020","unstructured":"Rosenberg, M. D. et al. Behavioral and neural signatures of working memory in childhood. J. Neurosci. 40, 5090\u20135104 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-42540-8","volume":"14","author":"B Tervo-Clemmens","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tervo-Clemmens, B. et al. A canonical trajectory of executive function maturation from adolescence to adulthood. Nat. Commun. 14, 6922 (2023).","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"2076_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04554-y","volume":"604","author":"RAI Bethlehem","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bethlehem, R. A. I. et al. Brain charts for the human lifespan. Nature 604, 525\u2013533 (2022).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2076_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Alldritt, S. et al. Brain charts for the rhesus macaque. Preprint at bioRxiv https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2024.08.28.610193 (2024).","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.08.28.610193"},{"key":"2076_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8174","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0402680101","volume":"101","author":"N Gogtay","year":"2004","unstructured":"Gogtay, N. et al. Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 8174\u20138179 (2004).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2076_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.25364","volume":"43","author":"S Frangou","year":"2022","unstructured":"Frangou, S. et al. Cortical thickness across the lifespan: data from 17,075 healthy individuals aged 3\u201390 years. Hum. Brain Mapp. 43, 431\u2013451 (2022).","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"2076_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/4.1.78","volume":"4","author":"JP Bourgeois","year":"1994","unstructured":"Bourgeois, J. P., Goldman-Rakic, P. S. & Rakic, P. Synaptogenesis in the prefrontal cortex of rhesus monkeys. Cereb. Cortex 4, 78\u201396 (1994).","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"2076_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2022.119507","volume":"261","author":"D Fuhrmann","year":"2022","unstructured":"Fuhrmann, D., Madsen, K. S., Johansen, L. B., Baar\u00e9, W. F. C. & Kievit, R. A. The midpoint of cortical thinning between late childhood and early adulthood differs between individuals and brain regions: evidence from longitudinal modelling in a 12-wave neuroimaging sample. Neuroimage 261, 119507 (2022).","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2076_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1126\/science.3952506","volume":"232","author":"P Rakic","year":"1986","unstructured":"Rakic, P., Bourgeois, J. P., Eckenhoff, M. F., Zecevic, N. & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. Concurrent overproduction of synapses in diverse regions of the primate cerebral cortex. Science 232, 232\u2013235 (1986).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2076_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(91)90210-D","volume":"29","author":"TL Jernigan","year":"1991","unstructured":"Jernigan, T. L. et al. Cerebral structure on MRI, part I: localization of age-related changes. Biol. Psychiatry 29, 55\u201367 (1991).","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"2076_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15535","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2825-10.2010","volume":"30","author":"K Hwang","year":"2010","unstructured":"Hwang, K., Velanova, K. & Luna, B. Strengthening of top-down frontal cognitive control networks underlying the development of inhibitory control: a functional magnetic resonance imaging effective connectivity study. J. Neurosci. 30, 15535\u201315545 (2010).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1227","DOI":"10.1162\/0898929041920441","volume":"16","author":"Z Nagy","year":"2004","unstructured":"Nagy, Z., Westerberg, H. & Klingberg, T. Maturation of white matter is associated with the development of cognitive functions during childhood. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 16, 1227\u20131233 (2004).","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-019-0394-3","volume":"22","author":"G Ziegler","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ziegler, G. et al. Compulsivity and impulsivity traits linked to attenuated developmental frontostriatal myelination trajectories. Nat. Neurosci. 22, 992\u2013999 (2019).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2004.12.008","volume":"9","author":"T Paus","year":"2005","unstructured":"Paus, T. Mapping brain maturation and cognitive development during adolescence. Trends Cogn. Sci. 9, 60\u201368 (2005).","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"2076_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2018.06.020","volume":"131","author":"SJ Dienel","year":"2019","unstructured":"Dienel, S. J. & Lewis, D. A. Alterations in cortical interneurons and cognitive function in schizophrenia. Neurobiol. Dis. 131, 104208 (2019).","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"2076_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2011.06.004","volume":"1","author":"A Padmanabhan","year":"2011","unstructured":"Padmanabhan, A., Geier, C. F., Ordaz, S. J., Teslovich, T. & Luna, B. Developmental changes in brain function underlying the influence of reward processing on inhibitory control. Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 1, 517\u2013529 (2011).","journal-title":"Dev. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18109","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1741-13.2013","volume":"33","author":"SJ Ordaz","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ordaz, S. J., Foran, W., Velanova, K. & Luna, B. Longitudinal growth curves of brain function underlying inhibitory control through adolescence. J. Neurosci. 33, 18109\u201318124 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms13423","volume":"7","author":"X Zhou","year":"2016","unstructured":"Zhou, X. et al. Neural correlates of working memory development in adolescent primates. Nat. Commun. 7, 13423 (2016).","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"2076_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3853","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1316594111","volume":"111","author":"X Zhou","year":"2014","unstructured":"Zhou, X. et al. Age-dependent changes in prefrontal intrinsic connectivity. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 3853\u20133858 (2014).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2076_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1336.016","volume":"1061","author":"TM Plant","year":"2005","unstructured":"Plant, T. M., Ramaswamy, S., Simorangkir, D. & Marshall, G. R. Postnatal and pubertal development of the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) testis. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1061, 149\u2013162 (2005).","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"2076_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1423","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1102541","volume":"305","author":"GS Roth","year":"2004","unstructured":"Roth, G. S. et al. Aging in rhesus monkeys: relevance to human health interventions. Science 305, 1423\u20131426 (2004).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2076_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/S0893-133X(96)00277-1","volume":"16","author":"DA Lewis","year":"1997","unstructured":"Lewis, D. A. Development of the prefrontal cortex during adolescence: insights into vulnerable neural circuits in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 16, 385\u2013398 (1997).","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"2076_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-021-01137-9","volume":"47","author":"SM Kolk","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kolk, S. M. & Rakic, P. Development of prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology 47, 41\u201357 (2022).","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"2076_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2020.117346","volume":"223","author":"T Xu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Xu, T. et al. Cross-species functional alignment reveals evolutionary hierarchy within the connectome. Neuroimage 223, 117346 (2020).","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2076_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2303313120","volume":"120","author":"J Xia","year":"2023","unstructured":"Xia, J., Wang, F., Wang, Y., Wang, L. & Li, G. Longitudinal mapping of the development of cortical thickness and surface area in rhesus macaques during the first three years. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 120, e2303313120 (2023).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2076_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4325","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhaa015","volume":"30","author":"J Kim","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kim, J. et al. Rhesus macaque brain developmental trajectory: a longitudinal analysis using tensor-based structural morphometry and diffusion tensor imaging. Cereb. Cortex 30, 4325\u20134335 (2020).","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"2076_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbr029","volume":"37","author":"GD Hoftman","year":"2011","unstructured":"Hoftman, G. D. & Lewis, D. A. Postnatal developmental trajectories of neural circuits in the primate prefrontal cortex: identifying sensitive periods for vulnerability to schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 37, 493\u2013503 (2011).","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"2076_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8352","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0306-13.2013","volume":"33","author":"KN Fish","year":"2013","unstructured":"Fish, K. N., Hoftman, G. D., Sheikh, W., Kitchens, M. & Lewis, D. A. Parvalbumin-containing chandelier and basket cell boutons have distinctive modes of maturation in monkey prefrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 33, 8352\u20138358 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E1272","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2013-3887","volume":"99","author":"S Vandewalle","year":"2014","unstructured":"Vandewalle, S. et al. Associations of sex steroids with bone maturation, bone mineral density, bone geometry, and body composition: a cross-sectional study in healthy male adolescents. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 99, E1272\u2013E1282 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"2076_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-09329-z","volume":"12","author":"I Kov\u00e1cs","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kov\u00e1cs, I. et al. Ultrasonic bone age fractionates cognitive abilities in adolescence. Sci. Rep. 12, 5311 (2022).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"2076_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0213010","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0213010","volume":"14","author":"DF Montez","year":"2019","unstructured":"Montez, D. F., Calabro, F. J. & Luna, B. Working memory improves developmentally as neural processes stabilize. PLoS ONE 14, e0213010 (2019).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"2076_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-05961-4","volume":"9","author":"DF Wasmuht","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wasmuht, D. F., Spaak, E., Buschman, T. J., Miller, E. K. & Stokes, M. G. Intrinsic neuronal dynamics predict distinct functional roles during working memory. Nat. Commun. 9, 3499 (2018).","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"2076_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2016.01.010","volume":"37","author":"S Fusi","year":"2016","unstructured":"Fusi, S., Miller, E. K. & Rigotti, M. Why neurons mix: high dimensionality for higher cognition. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 37, 66\u201374 (2016).","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"2076_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Minxha, J., Adolphs, R., Fusi, S., Mamelak, A. N. & Rutishauser, U. Flexible recruitment of memory-based choice representations by the human medial frontal cortex. Science 368, eaba3313 (2020).","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aba3313"},{"key":"2076_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2311","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.02311","volume":"8","author":"K Poon","year":"2018","unstructured":"Poon, K. Hot and cool executive functions in adolescence: development and contributions to important developmental outcomes. Front. Psychol. 8, 2311 (2018).","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"2076_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1038\/nn846","volume":"5","author":"K Sakai","year":"2002","unstructured":"Sakai, K., Rowe, J. B. & Passingham, R. E. Active maintenance in prefrontal area 46 creates distractor-resistant memory. Nat. Neurosci. 5, 479\u2013484 (2002).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1770","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-017-0003-2","volume":"20","author":"A Parthasarathy","year":"2017","unstructured":"Parthasarathy, A. et al. Mixed selectivity morphs population codes in prefrontal cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 20, 1770\u20131779 (2017).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-021-00821-9","volume":"24","author":"A Libby","year":"2021","unstructured":"Libby, A. & Buschman, T. J. Rotational dynamics reduce interference between sensory and memory representations. Nat. Neurosci. 24, 715\u2013726 (2021).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2121331119","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2121331119","volume":"119","author":"BB Averbeck","year":"2022","unstructured":"Averbeck, B. B. Pruning recurrent neural networks replicates adolescent changes in working memory and reinforcement learning. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 119, e2121331119 (2022).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2076_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8723","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0462-23.2023","volume":"43","author":"L Liuzzi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Liuzzi, L., Pine, D. S., Fox, N. A. & Averbeck, B. B. Changes in behavior and neural dynamics across adolescent development. J. Neurosci. 43, 8723\u20138732 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1252304","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1252304","volume":"344","author":"EM Gibson","year":"2014","unstructured":"Gibson, E. M. et al. Neuronal activity promotes oligodendrogenesis and adaptive myelination in the mammalian brain. Science 344, 1252304 (2014).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2076_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72136","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.72136","volume":"11","author":"JF Mej\u00edas","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mej\u00edas, J. F. & Wang, X.-J. Mechanisms of distributed working memory in a large-scale network of macaque neocortex. eLife 11, 72136 (2022).","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"2076_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1995.03950220031007","volume":"52","author":"S Park","year":"1995","unstructured":"Park, S., Holzman, P. S. & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. Spatial working memory deficits in the relatives of schizophrenic patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 52, 821\u2013828 (1995).","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"2076_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1989.61.2.331","volume":"61","author":"S Funahashi","year":"1989","unstructured":"Funahashi, S., Bruce, C. J. & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. Mnemonic coding of visual space in the monkey\u2019s dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. J. Neurophysiol. 61, 331\u2013349 (1989).","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"2076_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3645","volume":"17","author":"K Wimmer","year":"2014","unstructured":"Wimmer, K., Nykamp, D. Q., Constantinidis, C. & Compte, A. Bump attractor dynamics in prefrontal cortex explains behavioral precision in spatial working memory. Nat. Neurosci. 17, 431\u2013439 (2014).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2236(00)01868-3","volume":"24","author":"XJ Wang","year":"2001","unstructured":"Wang, X. J. Synaptic reverberation underlying mnemonic persistent activity. Trends Neurosci. 24, 455\u2013463 (2001).","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montez, D. V., Calabro, F. J. & Luna, B. The expression of established cognitive brain states stabilizes with working memory development. eLife 6, e25606 (2017).","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.25606"},{"key":"2076_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2007.05.007","volume":"66","author":"S Kaiser","year":"2008","unstructured":"Kaiser, S. et al. Intra-individual reaction time variability in schizophrenia, depression and borderline personality disorder. Brain Cogn. 66, 73\u201382 (2008).","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"2076_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00192.2003","volume":"90","author":"DP Munoz","year":"2003","unstructured":"Munoz, D. P., Armstrong, I. T., Hampton, K. A. & Moore, K. D. Altered control of visual fixation and saccadic eye movements in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J. Neurophysiol. 90, 503\u2013514 (2003).","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"2076_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1225232024","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1225-23.2024","volume":"44","author":"A Mahrach","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mahrach, A., Bestue, D., Qi, X.-L., Constantinidis, C. & Compte, A. Cholinergic neuromodulation of prefrontal attractor dynamics controls performance in spatial working memory. J. Neurosci. 44, e1225232024 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4067","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3578-15.2016","volume":"36","author":"RK Blackman","year":"2016","unstructured":"Blackman, R. K. et al. Monkey prefrontal neurons reflect logical operations for cognitive control in a variant of the AX continuous performance task (AX-CPT). J. Neurosci. 36, 4067\u20134079 (2016).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20750","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1904931116","volume":"116","author":"VS Natu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Natu, V. S. et al. Apparent thinning of human visual cortex during childhood is associated with myelination. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 20750\u201320759 (2019).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2076_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.12.044","volume":"92","author":"DJ Simmonds","year":"2014","unstructured":"Simmonds, D. J., Hallquist, M. N., Asato, M. & Luna, B. Developmental stages and sex differences of white matter and behavioral development through adolescence: a longitudinal diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) study. Neuroimage 92, 356\u2013368 (2014).","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2076_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.11.094","volume":"60","author":"C Lebel","year":"2012","unstructured":"Lebel, C. et al. Diffusion tensor imaging of white matter tract evolution over the lifespan. Neuroimage 60, 340\u2013352 (2012).","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2076_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117744","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2021.117744","volume":"230","author":"A Lazari","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lazari, A. & Lipp, I. Can MRI measure myelin? Systematic review, qualitative assessment, and meta-analysis of studies validating microstructural imaging with myelin histology. Neuroimage 230, 117744 (2021).","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2076_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-018-0121-5","volume":"21","author":"EG Hughes","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hughes, E. G., Orthmann-Murphy, J. L., Langseth, A. J. & Bergles, D. E. Myelin remodeling through experience-dependent oligodendrogenesis in the adult somatosensory cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 21, 696\u2013706 (2018).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11832","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1811013115","volume":"115","author":"DJ Dutta","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dutta, D. J. et al. Regulation of myelin structure and conduction velocity by perinodal astrocytes. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 115, 11832\u201311837 (2018).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2076_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pajevic, S., Plenz, D., Basser, P. J. & Fields, R. D. Oligodendrocyte-mediated myelin plasticity and its role in neural synchronization. eLife 12, e81982 (2023).","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.81982"},{"key":"2076_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1670","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhy065","volume":"29","author":"DA Pinotsis","year":"2019","unstructured":"Pinotsis, D. A., Buschman, T. J. & Miller, E. K. Working memory load modulates neuronal coupling. Cereb. Cortex 29, 1670\u20131681 (2019).","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"2076_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1860","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1138071","volume":"315","author":"TJ Buschman","year":"2007","unstructured":"Buschman, T. J. & Miller, E. K. Top-down versus bottom-up control of attention in the prefrontal and posterior parietal cortices. Science 315, 1860\u20131862 (2007).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2076_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.2007.19.5.750","volume":"19","author":"F Edin","year":"2007","unstructured":"Edin, F., Macoveanu, J., Olesen, P., Tegn\u00e9r, J. & Klingberg, T. Stronger synaptic connectivity as a mechanism behind development of working memory-related brain activity during childhood. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 19, 750\u2013760 (2007).","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2021.08.024","volume":"109","author":"S Froudist-Walsh","year":"2021","unstructured":"Froudist-Walsh, S. et al. A dopamine gradient controls access to distributed working memory in the large-scale monkey cortex. Neuron 109, 3500\u20133520 (2021).","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2076_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e34354","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.34354","volume":"7","author":"S Froudist-Walsh","year":"2018","unstructured":"Froudist-Walsh, S. Macro-connectomics and microstructure predict dynamic plasticity patterns in the non-human primate brain. eLife 7, e34354 (2018).","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"2076_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"608575","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2021.608575","volume":"12","author":"TW Cheng","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cheng, T. W. et al. A researcher\u2019s guide to the measurement and modeling of puberty in the ABCD Study at baseline. Front. Endocrinol. 12, 608575 (2021).","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"2076_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-018-0078-4","volume":"21","author":"L Foulkes","year":"2018","unstructured":"Foulkes, L. & Blakemore, S.-J. Studying individual differences in human adolescent brain development. Nat. Neurosci. 21, 315\u2013323 (2018).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2004.07.009","volume":"142","author":"T Meyer","year":"2005","unstructured":"Meyer, T. & Constantinidis, C. A software solution for the control of visual behavioral experimentation. J. Neurosci. Methods 142, 27\u201334 (2005).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"2076_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.2000.84.1.301","volume":"84","author":"KD Powell","year":"2000","unstructured":"Powell, K. D. & Goldberg, M. E. Response of neurons in the lateral intraparietal area to a distractor flashed during the delay period of a memory-guided saccade. J. Neurophysiol. 84, 301\u2013310 (2000).","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"2076_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.2000.84.1.401","volume":"84","author":"KD Harris","year":"2000","unstructured":"Harris, K. D., Henze, D. A., Csicsvari, J., Hirase, H. & Buzs\u00e1ki, G. Accuracy of tetrode spike separation as determined by simultaneous intracellular and extracellular measurements. J. Neurophysiol. 84, 401\u2013414 (2000).","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"2076_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Avants, B., Tustison, N. J. & Gang, S. Advanced Normalization Tools: V1.0. Insight J. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.54294\/uvnhin (2009).","DOI":"10.54294\/uvnhin"},{"key":"2076_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.09.015","volume":"62","author":"M Jenkinson","year":"2012","unstructured":"Jenkinson, M., Beckmann, C. F., Behrens, T. E. J, Woolrich, M. W. & Smith, S. M. FSL. Neuroimage 62, 782\u2013790 (2012).","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2076_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2012.01.021","volume":"62","author":"B Fischl","year":"2012","unstructured":"Fischl, B. FreeSurfer. Neuroimage 62, 774\u2013781 (2012).","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2076_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.05.077","volume":"80","author":"DS Marcus","year":"2013","unstructured":"Marcus, D. S. et al. Human Connectome Project informatics: quality control, database services, and data visualization. Neuroimage 80, 202\u2013219 (2013).","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2076_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Garin, C. M. et al. EvoDevo NeuroImaging Explorer (EDNiX). Zenodo https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/zenodo.14801142 (2025).","DOI":"10.5281\/zenodo.14801142"},{"key":"2076_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.3389\/fninf.2020.00024","volume":"14","author":"M Celestine","year":"2020","unstructured":"Celestine, M., Nadkarni, N. A., Garin, C. M., Bougacha, S. & Dhenain, M. Sammba-MRI: a library for processing SmAll-MaMmal BrAin MRI data in Python. Front. Neuroinform. 14, 24 (2020).","journal-title":"Front. Neuroinform."},{"key":"2076_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2021.117997","volume":"235","author":"B Jung","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jung, B. et al. A comprehensive macaque fMRI pipeline and hierarchical atlas. Neuroimage 235, 117997 (2021).","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2076_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117996","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2021.117996","volume":"235","author":"R Hartig","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hartig, R. et al. The Subcortical Atlas of the Rhesus Macaque (SARM) for neuroimaging. Neuroimage 235, 117996 (2021).","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2076_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.3389\/fninf.2014.00014","volume":"8","author":"A Abraham","year":"2014","unstructured":"Abraham, A. et al. Machine learning for neuroimaging with scikit-learn. Front. Neuroinform. 8, 14 (2014).","journal-title":"Front. Neuroinform."},{"key":"2076_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.116137","volume":"202","author":"JD Tournier","year":"2019","unstructured":"Tournier, J. D. et al. MRtrix3: a fast, flexible and open software framework for medical image processing and visualisation. Neuroimage 202, 116137 (2019).","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2076_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e107398","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0107398","volume":"9","author":"E Zakszewski","year":"2014","unstructured":"Zakszewski, E., Adluru, N., Tromp do, P. M., Kalin, N. & Alexander, A. L. A diffusion-tensor-based white matter atlas for rhesus macaques. PLoS ONE 9, e107398 (2014).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"2076_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-72432-6","volume":"10","author":"M Poletti","year":"2020","unstructured":"Poletti, M., Intoy, J. & Rucci, M. Accuracy and precision of small saccades. Sci. Rep. 10, 16097 (2020).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"2076_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.2501","volume":"13","author":"MM Churchland","year":"2010","unstructured":"Churchland, M. M. et al. Stimulus onset quenches neural variability: a widespread cortical phenomenon. Nat. Neurosci. 13, 369\u2013378 (2010).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3862","volume":"17","author":"JD Murray","year":"2014","unstructured":"Murray, J. D. et al. A hierarchy of intrinsic timescales across primate cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 17, 1661\u20131663 (2014).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"2076_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11252","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1104666108","volume":"108","author":"TJ Buschman","year":"2011","unstructured":"Buschman, T. J., Siegel, M., Roy, J. E. & Miller, E. K. Neural substrates of cognitive capacity limitations. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, 11252\u201311255 (2011).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"2076_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wood, S. N. Fast stable restricted maximum likelihood and marginal likelihood estimation of semiparametric generalized linear models. J. R. Stat. Soc. Series B Stat. Methodol. 73, 3\u201336 (2011).","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9868.2010.00749.x"},{"key":"2076_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6962","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.06962","volume":"9","author":"GL Simpson","year":"2024","unstructured":"Simpson, G. L. & Singmann, H. gratia: an R package for exploring generalized additive models. J. Open Source Softw. 9, 6962 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Open Source Softw."}],"container-title":["Nature Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41593-025-02076-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41593-025-02076-0","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41593-025-02076-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T08:59:19Z","timestamp":1775033959000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41593-025-02076-0"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["2076"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41593-025-02076-0","relation":{},"ISSN":["1097-6256","1546-1726"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1097-6256","type":"print"},{"value":"1546-1726","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]]},"assertion":[{"value":"8 October 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"4 September 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"27 October 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}]}}