{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T18:54:23Z","timestamp":1790621663436,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,23]],"date-time":"2017-06-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1498176000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,23]],"date-time":"2017-06-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1498176000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>It is well established that visual sensitivity to motion is correlated with reading skills. Yet, the causal relationship between motion sensitivity and reading skills has been debated for more than thirty years. One hypothesis posits that dyslexia is caused by deficits in the motion processing pathway. An alternative hypothesis explains the motion processing deficit observed in dyslexia as the consequence of a lack, or poor quality, of reading experience. Here we used an intensive reading intervention program to test the causal relationship between learning to read and motion processing in children. Our data show that, while the reading intervention enhanced reading abilities, learning to read did not affect motion sensitivity. Motion sensitivity remained stable over the course of the intervention. Furthermore, the motion sensitivity deficit did not negatively impact the learning process. Children with poor motion sensitivity showed the same improvement in reading skills as children with typical motion sensitivity. Our findings call into question the view that motion processing deficits are due to poor reading experience. We propose that the correlation between the two measures arises from other common mechanisms, or that motion processing deficits are among a collection of correlated risk factors for reading difficulties.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-04471-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,19]],"date-time":"2017-06-19T09:24:15Z","timestamp":1497864255000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["The causal relationship between dyslexia and motion perception reconsidered"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6915-6992","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sung Jun","family":"Joo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5850-7248","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrick M.","family":"Donnelly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jason D.","family":"Yeatman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"4471_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7433985","volume":"210","author":"WJ Lovegrove","year":"1980","unstructured":"Lovegrove, W. J., Bowling, A., Badcock, D. & Blackwood, M. Specific reading disability: Differences in Contrast Sensitivity as a Function of Spatial Frequency. Science \n                           210, 439\u2013440 (1980).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"4471_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13363","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.94.24.13363","volume":"94","author":"JB Demb","year":"1997","unstructured":"Demb, J. B., Boynton, G. M. & Heeger, D. J. Brain activity in visual cortex predicts individual differences in reading performance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA \n                           94, 13363\u201313366 (1997).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"4471_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(00)00020-8","volume":"38","author":"JB Talcott","year":"2000","unstructured":"Talcott, J. B., Hansen, P. C., Assoku, E. L. & Stein, J. F. Visual motion sensitivity in dyslexia: Evidence for temporal and energy integration deficits. Neuropsychologia \n                           38, 935\u2013943 (2000).","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"4471_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2010.01527.x","volume":"82","author":"B Boets","year":"2011","unstructured":"Boets, B., Vandermosten, M., Cornelissen, P., Wouters, J. & Ghesqui\u00e8re, P. Coherent Motion Sensitivity and Reading Development in the Transition From Prereading to Reading Stage. Child Dev \n                           82, 854\u2013869 (2011).","journal-title":"Child Dev"},{"key":"4471_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7943","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.88.18.7943","volume":"88","author":"MS Livingstone","year":"1991","unstructured":"Livingstone, M. S., Rosen, G. D., Drislane, F. W. & Galaburda, a M. Physiological and anatomical evidence for a magnocellular defect in developmental dyslexia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA \n                           88, 7943\u20137947 (1991).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"4471_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1038\/382066a0","volume":"382","author":"GF Eden","year":"1996","unstructured":"Eden, G. F. et al. Abnormal processing of visual motion in dyslexia revealed by functional brain imaging. Nature \n                           382, 66\u201369 (1996).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"4471_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2236(96)01005-3","volume":"20","author":"J Stein","year":"1997","unstructured":"Stein, J. & Walsh, V. To see but not to read; the magnocellular theory of dyslexia. Trends Neurosci \n                           20, 147\u201352 (1997).","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci"},{"key":"4471_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2007.05.060","volume":"37","author":"M Ben-Shachar","year":"2007","unstructured":"Ben-Shachar, M., Dougherty, R. F., Deutsch, G. K. & Wandell, B. A. Contrast responsivity in MT+ correlates with phonological awareness and reading measures in children. Neuroimage \n                           37, 1396\u20131406 (2007).","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"4471_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1483","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(95)98728-R","volume":"35","author":"P Cornelissen","year":"1995","unstructured":"Cornelissen, P., Richardson, A., Mason, A., Fowler, S. & Stein, J. Contrast sensitivity and coherent motion detection measured at photopic luminance levels in dyslexics and controls. Vision Res. \n                           35, 1483\u20131494 (1995).","journal-title":"Vision Res."},{"key":"4471_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0021-9630.2003.00305.x","volume":"45","author":"FR Vellutino","year":"2004","unstructured":"Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J. & Scanlon, D. M. Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades? J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry Allied Discip \n                           45, 2\u201340 (2004).","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry Allied Discip"},{"key":"4471_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Snowling, M. Dyslexia as a phonological deficit: Evidence and implications. Child Adolesc. Ment. Health (1998).","DOI":"10.1111\/1475-3588.00201"},{"issue":"33\u201358","key":"4471_CR12","first-page":"78","volume":"34","author":"JK Torgesen","year":"2001","unstructured":"Torgesen, J. K. et al. Intensive remedial instruction for children with severe reading disabilities: immediate and long-term outcomes from two instructional approaches. J. Learn. Disabil. \n                           34(33\u201358), 78 (2001).","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"4471_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2009.12.003","volume":"14","author":"TR Vidyasagar","year":"2010","unstructured":"Vidyasagar, T. R. & Pammer, K. Dyslexia: a deficit in visuo-spatial attention, not in phonological processing. Trends Cogn. Sci. \n                           14, 57\u201363 (2010).","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"4471_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"830","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00830","volume":"8","author":"E Paulesu","year":"2014","unstructured":"Paulesu, E., Danelli, L. & Berlingeri, M. Reading the dyslexic brain: multiple dysfunctional routes revealed by a new meta-analysis of PET and fMRI activation studies. Front. Hum. Neurosci \n                           8, 830 (2014).","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci"},{"key":"4471_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2272","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awf231","volume":"125","author":"S Amitay","year":"2002","unstructured":"Amitay, S., Ben-Yehudah, G., Banai, K. & Ahissar, M. Disabled readers suffer from visual and auditory impairments but not from a specific magnocellular deficit. Brain \n                           125, 2272\u20132285 (2002).","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"4471_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(99)00170-4","volume":"40","author":"BC Skottun","year":"2000","unstructured":"Skottun, B. C. The magnocellular deficit theory of dyslexia: The evidence from contrast sensitivity. Vision Research \n                           40, 111\u2013127 (2000).","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"key":"4471_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2013.05.002","volume":"79","author":"O Olulade","year":"2013","unstructured":"Olulade, O., Napoliello, E. & Eden, G. Abnormal Visual Motion Processing Is Not a Cause of Dyslexia. Neuron \n                           79, 180\u2013190 (2013).","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"4471_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3836","volume":"16","author":"U Goswami","year":"2015","unstructured":"Goswami, U. Sensory theories of developmental dyslexia: three challenges for research. Nat Rev Neurosci \n                           16, 43\u201354 (2015).","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"4471_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3836-c1","volume":"16","author":"M Lobier","year":"2015","unstructured":"Lobier, M. & Valdois, S. Visual attention deficits in developmental dyslexia cannot be ascribed solely to poor reading experience. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. \n                           16, 1 (2015).","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"4471_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2012.03.013","volume":"22","author":"S Franceschini","year":"2012","unstructured":"Franceschini, S., Gori, S., Ruffino, M., Pedrolli, K. & Facoetti, A. A causal link between visual spatial attention and reading acquisition. Curr. Biol. \n                           22, 814\u2013819 (2012).","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"4471_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8059","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5077-14.2015","volume":"35","author":"GM Cicchini","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cicchini, G. M., Marino, C., Mascheretti, S., Perani, D. & Morrone, M. C. Strong motion deficits in dyslexia associated with DCDC2 gene alteration. J. Neurosci. \n                           35, 8059\u201364 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"4471_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.118.4.338","volume":"118","author":"P Rabbitt","year":"1989","unstructured":"Rabbitt, P. & Banerji, N. How does very prolonged practice improve decision speed? J. Exp. Psychol. Gen \n                           118, 338\u2013345 (1989).","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Gen"},{"key":"4471_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1038\/76673","volume":"3","author":"G Rees","year":"2000","unstructured":"Rees, G., Friston, K. J. & Koch, C. A direct quantitative relationship between the functional properties of human and macaque V5. Nat. Neurosci. \n                           3, 716\u2013723 (2000).","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"4471_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1038\/76572","volume":"3","author":"DJ Heeger","year":"2000","unstructured":"Heeger, D. J., Huk, A. C., Geisler, W. S. & Albrecht, D. G. Spikes versus BOLD: what does neuroimaging tell us about neuronal activity? Nat Neurosci \n                           3, 631\u2013633 (2000).","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"4471_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3525","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.2000.83.6.3525","volume":"83","author":"aC Huk","year":"2000","unstructured":"Huk, a C. & Heeger, D. J. Task-related modulation of visual cortex. J. Neurophysiol. \n                           83, 3525\u201336 (2000).","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"4471_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2606","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00318.2012","volume":"109","author":"E Runeson","year":"2013","unstructured":"Runeson, E., Boynton, G. M. & Murray, S. O. Effects of task and attentional selection on responses in human visual cortex. J. Neurophysiol. \n                           109, 2606\u201317 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"4471_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3023","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4476-04.2005","volume":"25","author":"GT Buracas","year":"2005","unstructured":"Buracas, G. T., Fine, I. & Boynton, G. M. The Relationship between Task Performance and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Response. J. Neurosci. \n                           25, 3023\u20133031 (2005).","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"4471_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1925","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1520309113","volume":"113","author":"SJ Joo","year":"2016","unstructured":"Joo, S. J., Katz, L. N. & Huk, A. C. Decision-related perturbations of decision-irrelevant eye movements. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA \n                           113, 1925\u20131930 (2016).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"4471_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.29.051605.113038","volume":"30","author":"JI Gold","year":"2007","unstructured":"Gold, J. I. & Shadlen, M. N. The Neural Basis of Decision Making. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. \n                           30, 535\u2013574 (2007).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"4471_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.93.2.628","volume":"93","author":"MN Shadlen","year":"1996","unstructured":"Shadlen, M. N. & Newsome, W. T. Motion perception: seeing and deciding. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA \n                           93, 628\u2013633 (1996).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"4471_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08275","volume":"461","author":"A Resulaj","year":"2009","unstructured":"Resulaj, A., Kiani, R., Wolpert, D. M. & Shadlen, M. N. Changes of mind in decision-making. Nature \n                           461, 263\u2013266 (2009).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"4471_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1038\/35006062","volume":"404","author":"JI Gold","year":"2000","unstructured":"Gold, J. I., Shadlen, M. N., J.I., G. & M.N., S. Representation of a perceptual decision in developing oculomotor commands. Nature \n                           404, 390\u20134 (2000).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"4471_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1080\/713756790","volume":"5","author":"JE Raymond","year":"1998","unstructured":"Raymond, J. E. & Sorensen, R. E. Visual Motion Perception in Children with Dyslexia: Normal Detection but Abnormal Integration. Vis. cogn. \n                           5, 389\u2013404 (1998).","journal-title":"Vis. cogn."},{"key":"4471_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112842","volume":"11","author":"RL Peterson","year":"2015","unstructured":"Peterson, R. L. & Pennington, B. F. Developmental dyslexia. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. \n                           11, 283\u2013307 (2015).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"4471_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2006.04.008","volume":"101","author":"BF Pennington","year":"2006","unstructured":"Pennington, B. F. From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders. Cognition \n                           101, 385\u2013413 (2006).","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"4471_CR36","unstructured":"Bell, N. Seeing Stars. (Gander Publishing, 1997)."},{"key":"4471_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1163\/156856897X00366","volume":"10","author":"DG Pelli","year":"1997","unstructured":"Pelli, D. G. The VideoToolbox software for visual psychophysics: transforming numbers into movies. Spatial Vision \n                           10, 437\u2013442 (1997).","journal-title":"Spatial Vision"},{"key":"4471_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1163\/156856897X00357","volume":"10","author":"DH Brainard","year":"1997","unstructured":"Brainard, D. H. The Psychophysics Toolbox. Spat. Vis \n                           10, 433\u2013436 (1997).","journal-title":"Spat. Vis"},{"key":"4471_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03202828","volume":"33","author":"AB Watson","year":"1983","unstructured":"Watson, A. B. & Pelli, D. G. QUEST: a Bayesian adaptive psychometric method. Percept. Psychophys. \n                           33, 113\u2013120 (1983).","journal-title":"Percept. Psychophys."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-017-04471-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-017-04471-5","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-017-04471-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,23]],"date-time":"2022-12-23T00:57:32Z","timestamp":1671757052000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-017-04471-5"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,23]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12]]}},"alternative-id":["4471"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-017-04471-5","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,23]]},"assertion":[{"value":"16 January 2017","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"22 May 2017","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"23 June 2017","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing Interests"}}],"article-number":"4185"}}