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Hypotheses proposed to explain these anomalies included contact with endocrine disrupting pesticides, such as imidacloprid. We evaluated the effects of imidacloprid experimentally at the South Dakota State University Wildlife and Fisheries Captive Facility where adult white-tailed deer females and their fawns were administered aqueous imidacloprid (an untreated control, 1,500\u2009ng\/L, 3,000\u2009ng\/L, and 15,000\u2009ng\/L). Water consumption, thyroid hormone function, behavioral responses, and skull and jawbone measurements were compared among treatments. Additionally, liver, spleen, genital, and brain imidacloprid concentrations were determined by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results indicated that 1) control deer consumed more water than treatment groups, 2) imidacloprid was present in the organs of our control group, indicating environmental contamination, 3) as imidacloprid increased in the spleen, fawn survival, thyroxine levels, jawbone lengths, body weight, and organ weights decreased, 4) adult female imidacloprid levels in the genitals were negatively correlated with genital organ weight and, 5) behavioral observations indicated that imidacloprid levels in spleens were negatively correlated with activity levels in adult females and fawns. Results demonstrate that imidacloprid has direct effects on white-tailed deer when administered at field\u2013relevant doses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-40994-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,14]],"date-time":"2019-03-14T12:06:06Z","timestamp":1552565166000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":93,"title":["Effects of Neonicotinoid Insecticides on Physiology and Reproductive Characteristics of Captive Female and Fawn White-tailed Deer"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Elise Hughes","family":"Berheim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9860-3613","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonathan A.","family":"Jenks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonathan G.","family":"Lundgren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric S.","family":"Michel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Grove","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"William F.","family":"Jensen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"40994_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.12111","volume":"50","author":"D Goulson","year":"2013","unstructured":"Goulson, D. 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