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It would, therefore, be of great benefit to identify those at high risk early on so that preventative measures can be initiated. To investigate this, we evaluated the effects of smoking on inflammatory markers, innate and adaptive immune responses to bacterial and viral challenges and blood cell composition. We found that plasma samples from 30 heavy smokers (16 men and 14 women) had significantly higher CRP, fibrinogen, IL-6 and CEA levels than 36 non-smoking controls. Whole blood samples from smokers, incubated for 7\u00a0h at 37\u00a0\u00b0C in the absence of any exogenous stimuli, secreted significantly higher levels of IL-8 and a number of other cytokines\/chemokines than non-smokers. When challenged for 7\u00a0h with\n                    <jats:italic>E. coli,<\/jats:italic>\n                    whole blood samples from smokers secreted significantly lower levels of many inflammatory cytokines\/chemokines. However, when stimulated with HSV-1, significantly higher levels of both PGE\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    and many cytokines\/chemokines were secreted from smokers\u2019 blood samples than from controls. In terms of blood cell composition, red blood cells, hematocrits, hemoglobin levels, MCV, MCH, MCHC, Pct and RDW levels were all elevated in smokers, in keeping with their compromised lung capacity. As well, total leukocytes were significantly higher, driven by increases in granulocytes and monocytes. In addition, smokers had lower NK cells and higher Tregs than controls, suggesting that smoking may reduce the ability to kill nascent tumor cells. Importantly, there was substantial person-to person variation amongst smokers with some showing markedly different values from controls and others showing normal levels of many parameters measured, indicating the former may be at significantly higher risk of developing lung cancer.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-76556-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,10]],"date-time":"2020-11-10T06:02:41Z","timestamp":1604988161000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":229,"title":["The effect of smoking on chronic inflammation, immune function and blood cell composition"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Ingrid","family":"Elisia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vivian","family":"Lam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brandon","family":"Cho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mariah","family":"Hay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael Yu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michelle","family":"Yeung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luke","family":"Bu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"William","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nancy","family":"Norton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen","family":"Lam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gerald","family":"Krystal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"76556_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1080\/08870446.2017.1325890","volume":"32","author":"R West","year":"2017","unstructured":"West, R. 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