{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T07:16:21Z","timestamp":1777619781179,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,21]],"date-time":"2021-01-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1611187200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,21]],"date-time":"2021-01-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1611187200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010410","name":"Education University of Hong Kong","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RG105\/2016-2017R"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RG105\/2016-2017R"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010410","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Expert face recognition has long been marked by holistic processing. Hence, due to the many visual properties shared between face perception and Chinese characters, it has been suggested that Chinese character recognition may induce stronger holistic processing in expert readers than in novices. However, there have been different viewpoints presented about Chinese character recognition, one of which suggests that expertise in this skill involved reduced holistic processing which may be modulated by writing experiences\/performances. In this study we examined holistic processing in Chinese character recognition in adults with and without dyslexia, using the complete composite paradigm. Our results showed that the adults with dyslexia recognized Chinese characters with a stronger holistic processing effect than the typical controls. It seems that those with dyslexia relied overly on the visual spatial information of characters and showed deficits in attending selectively to their components when processing Chinese characters, which hindered the development of expert reading and writing skills. This effect was in contrast to previous perceptual expertise studies in which reduced holistic processing marked deficits in face\/visual object recognition. This study is also the first to show that Chinese adults with dyslexia had persistent below average performances in Chinese literacy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-81553-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,21]],"date-time":"2021-01-21T11:03:39Z","timestamp":1611227019000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Holistic processing of Chinese characters in college students with dyslexia"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Ricky Van-yip","family":"Tso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ronald Tsz-chung","family":"Chan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yin-fei","family":"Chan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dan","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"81553_CR1","unstructured":"K\u00f6hler, W. Gestalt psychology. (Liveright, 1929)."},{"key":"81553_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wagemans, J. et al. A century of gestalt psychology in visual perception: I. Perceptual grouping and figure-ground organization. Psychol. Bull. 138, 1172\u20131217 (2012).","DOI":"10.1037\/a0029333"},{"key":"81553_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2012.00559","volume":"3","author":"DW Piepers","year":"2012","unstructured":"Piepers, D. W. & Robbins, R. A. A review and clarification of the terms \u201cholistic\u201d, \u201cconfigural\u201d, and \u201crelational\u201d in the face perception literature. Front. Psychol. 3, 559 (2012).","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"81553_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2006.02.004","volume":"10","author":"CM Bukach","year":"2006","unstructured":"Bukach, C. M., Gauthier, I. & Tarr, M. J. Beyond faces and modularity: the power of an expertise framework. Trends Cogn. Sci. 10, 159\u2013166 (2006).","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"81553_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2401","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(97)00442-2","volume":"38","author":"I Gauthier","year":"1998","unstructured":"Gauthier, I., Williams, P., Tarr, M. J. & Tanaka, J. Training \u2018greeble\u2019 experts: A framework for studying expert object recognition processes. Vis. Res. 38, 2401\u20132428 (1998).","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"81553_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1108","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2009.02430.x","volume":"20","author":"AC-N Wong","year":"2008","unstructured":"Wong, A.C.-N., Palmeri, T. J. & Gauthier, I. Conditions for facelike expertise with objects. Psychol. Sci. 20, 1108\u20131117 (2008).","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"81553_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(02)01903-4","volume":"6","author":"D Maurer","year":"2002","unstructured":"Maurer, D., Grand, R. L. & Mondloch, C. J. The many faces of configural processing. Trends Cogn. Sci. 6, 255\u2013260 (2002).","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"81553_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1080\/13506285.2013.772929","volume":"21","author":"B Rossion","year":"2013","unstructured":"Rossion, B. The composite face illusion: A whole window into our understanding of holistic face perception. Vis. Cogn. 21, 139\u2013253 (2013).","journal-title":"Vis. Cogn."},{"key":"81553_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721411402472","volume":"20","author":"JJ Richler","year":"2011","unstructured":"Richler, J. J., Wong, Y. K. & Gauthier, I. Perceptual expertise as a shift from strategic interference to automatic holistic processing. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 20, 129\u2013134 (2011).","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"81553_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2015.12.018","volume":"182","author":"JH Hsiao","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hsiao, J. H. & Galmar, B. Holistic processing as measured in the composite task does not always go with right hemisphere processing in face perception. Neurocomputing 182, 165\u2013177 (2016).","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"81553_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1080\/14640749308401045","volume":"46","author":"JW Tanaka","year":"1993","unstructured":"Tanaka, J. W. & Farah, M. J. Parts and wholes in face recognition. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 46, 225\u2013245 (1993).","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"81553_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2012.09.004","volume":"126","author":"J DeGutis","year":"2013","unstructured":"DeGutis, J., Wilmer, J., Mercado, R. J. & Cohan, S. Using regression to measure holistic face processing reveals a strong link with face recognition ability. Cognition 126, 87\u2013100 (2013).","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"81553_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2004.02.028","volume":"14","author":"AB Sekuler","year":"2004","unstructured":"Sekuler, A. B., Gaspar, C. M., Gold, J. M. & Bennett, P. J. Inversion leads to quantitative, not qualitative changes in face processing. Curr. Biol. 14, 391\u2013396 (2004).","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"81553_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1961","DOI":"10.1037\/xhp0000400","volume":"43","author":"C Rezlescu","year":"2017","unstructured":"Rezlescu, C., Susilo, T., Wilmer, J. B. & Caramazza, A. The inversion, part-whole, and composite effects reflect distinct perceptual mechanisms with varied relationships to face recognition. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 43, 1961\u20131973 (2017).","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform."},{"key":"81553_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1080\/00207590344000060","volume":"38","author":"H Shu","year":"2003","unstructured":"Shu, H. Chinese writing system and learning to read. Int. J. Psychol. 38, 274\u2013285 (2003).","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychol."},{"key":"81553_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1007\/s10936-006-9022-y","volume":"35","author":"JH Hsiao","year":"2006","unstructured":"Hsiao, J. H. & Shillcock, R. Analysis of a Chinese phonetic compound database: Implications for orthographic processing. J. Psychol. Res. 35, 405\u2013426 (2006).","journal-title":"J. Psychol. Res."},{"key":"81553_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2009.02315.x","volume":"20","author":"JH Hsiao","year":"2009","unstructured":"Hsiao, J. H. & Cottrell, G. W. Not all visual expertise is holistic, but it may be leftist. Psychol. Sci. 20, 455\u2013463 (2009).","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"81553_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2007.11.025","volume":"48","author":"JP McCleery","year":"2008","unstructured":"McCleery, J. P. et al. The roles of visual expertise and visual input in the face inversion effect: Behavioral and neurocomputational evidence. Vis. Res. 48, 703\u2013715 (2008).","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"81553_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1068\/p7698","volume":"43","author":"LE Bj\u00f6rnstr\u00f6m","year":"2014","unstructured":"Bj\u00f6rnstr\u00f6m, L. E., Hills, C., Hanif, H. & Barton, J. J. S. Visual word expertise: A study of inversion and the word-length effect, with perceptual transforms. Perception 43, 438\u2013450 (2014).","journal-title":"Perception"},{"key":"81553_CR20","first-page":"490","volume":"11","author":"A Koriat","year":"1985","unstructured":"Koriat, A. & Norman, J. Reading rotated words. J. Exp. Psychol. 11, 490\u2013508 (1985).","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"81553_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2009.04.003","volume":"46","author":"C-H Kao","year":"2010","unstructured":"Kao, C.-H., Chen, D.-Y. & Chen, C.-C. The inversion effect in visual word form processing. Cortex 46, 217\u2013230 (2010).","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"81553_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20753","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0020753","volume":"6","author":"AC-N Wong","year":"2011","unstructured":"Wong, A.C.-N. et al. Holistic processing of words modulated by reading experience. PLoS ONE 6, e20753 (2011).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"81553_CR23","unstructured":"Ventura, P. et al. Holistic Word Processing Predicts Word Recognition Efficiency. (2019)."},{"key":"81553_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.30740\/jee.v2i1p47-52","volume":"2","author":"P Ventura","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ventura, P. et al. Holistic word processing is involved in fast parallel reading. J. Expert. 2, 47\u201358 (2019).","journal-title":"J. Expert."},{"key":"81553_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1167\/12.13.7","volume":"12","author":"AC-N Wong","year":"2012","unstructured":"Wong, A.C.-N. et al. Holistic processing as a hallmark of perceptual expertise for nonface categories including Chinese characters. J. Vis. 12, 7\u20137 (2012).","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"81553_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1757","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797614541284","volume":"25","author":"RV Tso","year":"2014","unstructured":"Tso, R. V., Au, T. K. & Hsiao, J. H. Perceptual expertise: Can sensorimotor experience change holistic processing and left-side bias? Can sensorimotor experience change holistic processing and left-side bias?. Psychol. Sci. 25, 1757\u20131767 (2014).","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"81553_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-011-0174-x","volume":"19","author":"G Zhou","year":"2012","unstructured":"Zhou, G., Cheng, Z., Zhang, X. & Wong, A.C.-N. Smaller holistic processing of faces associated with face drawing experience. Psychon. B Rev. 19, 157\u2013162 (2012).","journal-title":"Psychon. B Rev."},{"key":"81553_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0021-9630.2003.00305.x","volume":"45","author":"FR Vellutino","year":"2004","unstructured":"Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J. & Scanlon, D. M. Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades?. J. Child Psychol. Psyc 45, 2\u201340 (2004).","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psyc"},{"key":"81553_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00904","volume":"8","author":"U Goswami","year":"2014","unstructured":"Goswami, U., Power, A. J., Lallier, M. & Facoetti, A. Oscillatory, \u201ctemporal sampling\u201d and developmental dyslexia: Toward an over-arching theoretical framework. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8, 904 (2014).","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"81553_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2009.12.003","volume":"14","author":"TR Vidyasagar","year":"2010","unstructured":"Vidyasagar, T. R. & Pammer, K. Dyslexia: a deficit in visuo-spatial attention, not in phonological processing. Trends Cogn. Sci. 14, 57\u201363 (2010).","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"81553_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0187326","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0187326","volume":"12","author":"A Conway","year":"2017","unstructured":"Conway, A., Brady, N. & Misra, K. Holistic word processing in dyslexia. PLoS ONE 12, e0187326 (2017).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"81553_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-011-9303-1","volume":"25","author":"CS-H Ho","year":"2012","unstructured":"Ho, C.S.-H. et al. The core components of reading instruction in Chinese. Read. Writ. 25, 857\u2013886 (2012).","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"81553_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.1584","volume":"24","author":"S Liu","year":"2018","unstructured":"Liu, S., Liu, D., Pan, Z. & Xu, Z. The association between reading abilities and visual-spatial attention in Hong Kong Chinese children. Dyslexia 24, 263\u2013275 (2018).","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"81553_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1662","DOI":"10.1037\/a0020611","volume":"46","author":"X Tong","year":"2010","unstructured":"Tong, X. & McBride-Chang, C. Developmental models of learning to read Chinese words. Dev. Psychol. 46, 1662\u20131676 (2010).","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"81553_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1080\/10888430903162910","volume":"13","author":"X Tong","year":"2009","unstructured":"Tong, X., McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H. & Wong, A.M.-Y. Morphological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and spelling errors: Keys to understanding early Chinese literacy acquisition. Sci. Stud. Read. 13, 426\u2013452 (2009).","journal-title":"Sci. Stud. Read."},{"key":"81553_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R890","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2009.08.014","volume":"19","author":"WT Siok","year":"2009","unstructured":"Siok, W. T., Spinks, J. A., Jin, Z. & Tan, L. H. Developmental dyslexia is characterized by the co-existence of visuospatial and phonological disorders in Chinese children. Curr. Biol. 19, R890\u2013R892 (2009).","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"81553_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1037\/a0023730","volume":"103","author":"CQ Guan","year":"2011","unstructured":"Guan, C. Q., Liu, Y., Chan, D. H. L., Ye, F. & Perfetti, C. A. Writing strengthens orthography and alphabetic-coding strengthens phonology in learning to read Chinese. J. Educ. Psychol. 103, 509\u2013522 (2011).","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"81553_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-004-7343-5","volume":"18","author":"C Mcbride-Chang","year":"2005","unstructured":"Mcbride-Chang, C., Chow, B. W. Y., Zhong, Y., Burgess, S. & Hayward, W. G. Chinese character acquisition and visual skills in two Chinese scripts. Read. Writ. 18, 99\u2013128 (2005).","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"81553_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2011.04.014","volume":"110","author":"C McBride-Chang","year":"2011","unstructured":"McBride-Chang, C., Chung, K. K. H. & Tong, X. Copying skills in relation to word reading and writing in Chinese children with and without dyslexia. J. Exp. Child. Psychol. 110, 422\u2013433 (2011).","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child. Psychol."},{"key":"81553_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8781","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0503523102","volume":"102","author":"LH Tan","year":"2005","unstructured":"Tan, L. H. et al. Reading depends on writing Chinese. Natl. Acad. Sci. 102, 8781\u20138785 (2005).","journal-title":"Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"81553_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1080\/02643290802425914","volume":"26","author":"KH James","year":"2009","unstructured":"James, K. H. & Atwood, T. P. The role of sensorimotor learning in the perception of letter-like forms: Tracking the causes of neural specialization for letters. Cognit. Neuropsych. 26, 91\u2013110 (2009).","journal-title":"Cognit. Neuropsych."},{"key":"81553_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1670","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22017","volume":"34","author":"F Cao","year":"2013","unstructured":"Cao, F. et al. Writing affects the brain network of reading in Chinese: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Hum. Brain Mapp. 34, 1670\u20131684 (2013).","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"81553_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1002\/dys.392","volume":"16","author":"KKH Chung","year":"2010","unstructured":"Chung, K. K. H., Ho, C. S., Chan, D. W., Tsang, S. & Lee, S. Cognitive profiles of Chinese adolescents with dyslexia. Dyslexia 16, 2\u201323 (2010).","journal-title":"Dyslexia"},{"key":"81553_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-0277(03)00163-X","volume":"91","author":"CS-H Ho","year":"2004","unstructured":"Ho, C.S.-H., Chan, D.W.-O., Lee, S.-H., Tsang, S.-M. & Luan, V. H. Cognitive profiling and preliminary subtyping in Chinese developmental dyslexia. Cognition 91, 43\u201375 (2004).","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"81553_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02865","volume":"431","author":"WT Siok","year":"2004","unstructured":"Siok, W. T., Perfetti, C. A., Jin, Z. & Tan, L. H. Biological abnormality of impaired reading is constrained by culture. Nature 431, 71\u201376 (2004).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"81553_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1080\/19404158.2010.495830","volume":"15","author":"KKH Chung","year":"2010","unstructured":"Chung, K. K. H. & Ho, C.S.-H. Dyslexia in Chinese language: An overview of research and practice. Austral. J. Learn Difficult. 15, 213\u2013224 (2010).","journal-title":"Austral. J. Learn Difficult."},{"key":"81553_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2541","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2011.05.002","volume":"49","author":"G Avidan","year":"2011","unstructured":"Avidan, G., Tanzer, M. & Behrmann, M. Impaired holistic processing in congenital prosopagnosia. Neuropsychologia 49, 2541\u20132552 (2011).","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"81553_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2008.12.007","volume":"49","author":"I Gauthier","year":"2009","unstructured":"Gauthier, I., Klaiman, C. & Schultz, R. T. Face composite effects reveal abnormal face processing in Autism spectrum disorders. Vis. Res. 49, 470\u2013478 (2009).","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"81553_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1207\/s15548430jlr3503_3","volume":"35","author":"CS-H Ho","year":"2003","unstructured":"Ho, C.S.-H., Ng, T.-T. & Ng, W.-K. A \u201cradical\u201d approach to reading development in Chinese: The role of semantic radicals and phonetic radicals. J. Lit. Res. 35, 849\u2013878 (2003).","journal-title":"J. Lit. Res."},{"key":"81553_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2016.03.001","volume":"53","author":"JH Smith-Spark","year":"2016","unstructured":"Smith-Spark, J. H., Henry, L. A., Messer, D. J., Edvardsdottir, E. & Zi\u0119cik, A. P. Executive functions in adults with developmental dyslexia. Res. Dev. Disabil. 53, 323\u2013341 (2016).","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"81553_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/abys2","author":"N Brady","year":"2020","unstructured":"Brady, N., Darmody, K., Newell, F. & Cooney, S. Holistic processing of words and faces in dyslexia. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.31234\/osf.io\/abys2 (2020).","journal-title":"Holistic processing of words and faces in dyslexia."},{"key":"81553_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y. P., Allport, D. A. & Marshall, J. C. What are the functional orthographic units in Chinese word recognition The stroke or the stroke pattern.pdf. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 49, 1024\u20131043 (1996).","DOI":"10.1080\/027249896392423"},{"key":"81553_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2005.01658.x","volume":"17","author":"L Ge","year":"2006","unstructured":"Ge, L., Wang, Z., McCleery, J. P. & Lee, K. Activation of face expertise and the inversion effect. Psychol. Sci. 17, 12\u201316 (2006).","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"81553_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00626.2009","volume":"104","author":"A Harris","year":"2010","unstructured":"Harris, A. & Aguirre, G. K. Neural tuning for face wholes and parts in human fusiform gyrus revealed by fMRI adaptation. J. Neurophysiol. 104, 336\u2013345 (2010).","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"81553_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2018.04.022","volume":"178","author":"HKS Chung","year":"2018","unstructured":"Chung, H. K. S., Leung, J. C. Y., Wong, V. M. Y. & Hsiao, J. H. When is the right hemisphere holistic and when is it not? The case of Chinese character recognition. Cognition 178, 50\u201356 (2018).","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"81553_CR56","unstructured":"Ho, C. S.-H. et al. The Hong Kong Test of Specific Learning Difficulties in Reading and Writing for Primary School Students-Third Edition [HKT-P(III)]. (Hong Kong Specific Learning Difficulties Research Team, 2016)."},{"key":"81553_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lachmann, T. Reading and dyslexia: the functional coordination framework: perspectives from cognitive neurosciences, linguistics, psychology and education. 265\u2013290 (2018). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-90805-2.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-90805-2"},{"key":"81553_CR58","unstructured":"(UGC), U. G. C. Customised Data Retrieval. https:\/\/cdcf.ugc.edu.hk\/cdcf\/indepthAnalysis.action (2019)."},{"key":"81553_CR59","unstructured":"Zhang, S. L. Teshusheng nan ru daxue: chang lingshe biaozhun qulu [Difficulties of SEN students in entering university: Advocation of alternative admission standard]. (2017)."},{"key":"81553_CR60","unstructured":"Kong, H. K. C. U. of H. Humanities Computing and Methodology Programme. Chinese Character Frequency Statistics for Hong Kong, Mainland China and Taiwan: A Trans-Regional, Diachronic Survey https:\/\/humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk\/Lexis\/chifreq\/ (2001)."},{"key":"81553_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Finley, R., Hughes, W., & Jacoby. Simultaneous versus sequential presentation in testing recognition memory for faces. Am. J. Psychol. 128, 173 (2015).","DOI":"10.5406\/amerjpsyc.128.2.0173"},{"key":"81553_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1941","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.12307","volume":"40","author":"T Liu","year":"2016","unstructured":"Liu, T., Chuk, T. Y., Yeh, S. & Hsiao, J. H. Transfer of perceptual expertise: The case of simplified and traditional Chinese character recognition. Cognit. Sci. 40, 1941\u20131968 (2016).","journal-title":"Cognit. Sci."},{"key":"81553_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-016-1131-5","volume":"24","author":"J Murphy","year":"2017","unstructured":"Murphy, J., Gray, K. L. H. & Cook, R. The composite face illusion. Psychon. B Rev. 24, 245\u2013261 (2017).","journal-title":"Psychon. B Rev."},{"key":"81553_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2006.02.008","volume":"103","author":"R Robbins","year":"2007","unstructured":"Robbins, R. & McKone, E. No face-like processing for objects-of-expertise in three behavioural tasks. Cognition 103, 34\u201379 (2007).","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"81553_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2006.05.003","volume":"103","author":"I Gauthier","year":"2007","unstructured":"Gauthier, I. & Bukach, C. Should we reject the expertise hypothesis?. Cognition 103, 322\u2013330 (2007).","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"81553_CR66","unstructured":"Raven, J. C., Court, J. H. & Raven, J. Manual for Raven\u2019s Standard Progressive Matrices. (Oxford Psychologists Press, 1996)."},{"key":"81553_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191112446655","volume":"19","author":"WB Bilker","year":"2012","unstructured":"Bilker, W. B. et al. Development of abbreviated nine-item forms of the Raven\u2019s standard progressive matrices test. Assessment 19, 354\u2013369 (2012).","journal-title":"Assessment"},{"key":"81553_CR68","first-page":"1","volume":"13","author":"KK Shum","year":"2016","unstructured":"Shum, K. K. & Au, T. K. Why does rapid naming predict Chinese word reading?. Lang. Learn. Dev. 13, 1\u201316 (2016).","journal-title":"Lang. Learn. Dev."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-021-81553-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-021-81553-5","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-021-81553-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,3]],"date-time":"2022-12-03T02:12:48Z","timestamp":1670033568000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-021-81553-5"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,21]]},"references-count":68,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["81553"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-021-81553-5","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,21]]},"assertion":[{"value":"8 March 2020","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 January 2021","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 January 2021","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"1973"}}