{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T20:56:00Z","timestamp":1790974560135,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,5]],"date-time":"2021-03-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614902400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,5]],"date-time":"2021-03-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614902400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["17H03504"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17H03504"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002241","name":"Japan Science and Technology Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JPMJSA1703"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPMJSA1703"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002241","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004532","name":"Japan International Cooperation Agency","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["JPMJSA1703"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPMJSA1703"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004532","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Superhot geothermal environments in granitic crusts of approximately 400\u2013500\u00a0\u00b0C are a frontier of geothermal energy. In the development of such environments, there is a concern of a reduction of permeability of fractured granite due to the formation of fine particles of amorphous silica induced by the phase change from subcritical water to supercritical water or superheated steam. However, the formation of silica particles and a resultant reduction in permeability have not been demonstrated to date. Therefore, experiments were conducted on the formation of amorphous silica particles with various combinations of temperature (430\u2013500\u00a0\u00b0C) and pressure (20\u201330\u00a0MPa), in which the phase change of Si-containing water from liquid to either supercritical fluid or vapor was induced. Amorphous silica nanoparticles occurred under all conditions with smaller particles for higher temperature. The permeability of fractured granite was also observed to decrease significantly within several hours during injection of the particles into rock at 450\u00a0\u00b0C and 30\u00a0MPa under a confining stress of 40\u00a0MPa, with slower permeability reduction at a smaller number of particles or in the presence of larger aperture fractures. The present study suggests that the nanoparticles are likely to form and destroy the permeability in superhot geothermal environments, against which countermeasures should be investigated.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-84744-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,5]],"date-time":"2021-03-05T11:02:36Z","timestamp":1614942156000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Formation of amorphous silica nanoparticles and its impact on permeability of fractured granite in superhot geothermal environments"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Noriaki","family":"Watanabe","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hikaru","family":"Abe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Atsushi","family":"Okamoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kengo","family":"Nakamura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Takeshi","family":"Komai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"84744_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baron, G. & Ungemach, P. European geothermal drilling experience-problem areas and case studies. In International Geothermal Drilling and Completions Technology Conference 24 (Albuquerque, 1981).","DOI":"10.2516\/ogst:1981028"},{"key":"84744_CR2","unstructured":"Batini, F., Bertini, G., Bottai, A., Burgassi, P., Cappetti, G., Gianelli, G. & Puxeddu, M. San Pompeo 2 deep well: a high temperature and high pressure geothermal system. In European Geothermal Update: Proceedings of the 3rd international seminar on the Results of EC Geothermal Energy Research (eds Strub, A., & Ungemach, P.) 341\u2013353 (1983)."},{"key":"84744_CR3","unstructured":"Ruggieri, G. & Gianelli, G. Fluid inclusion data from the Carboli 11 well, Larderello geothermal field, Italy. In World Geothermal Congress, Italy 1087\u20131091 (1995)."},{"key":"84744_CR4","unstructured":"Steingrimsson, B., Gudmundsson, A., Franzson, H. & Gunnlaugsson, E. Evidence of a supercritical fluid at depth in the Nesjavellir field. In Proceedings, 15th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering 8 (Stanford University, 1990)."},{"key":"84744_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geothermics.2013.03.004","volume":"49","author":"GO Fri\u00f0leifsson","year":"2014","unstructured":"Fri\u00f0leifsson, G. O., Elders, W. A. & Albertsson, A. The concept of the Iceland deep drilling project. Geothermics 49, 2\u20138 (2014).","journal-title":"Geothermics"},{"key":"84744_CR6","first-page":"30","volume":"46","author":"GO Fri\u00f0leifsson","year":"2017","unstructured":"Fri\u00f0leifsson, G. O. & Elders, W. A. The Iceland deep drilling project geothermal well at Reykjanes successfully reaches its supercritical target. Geotherm. Resour. Counc. Bull. 46, 30\u201333 (2017).","journal-title":"Geotherm. Resour. Counc. Bull."},{"issue":"5","key":"84744_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1029\/91GL00966","volume":"18","author":"RO Fournier","year":"1991","unstructured":"Fournier, R. O. The transition from hydrostatic to greater than hydrostatic fluid pressure in presently active continental hydrothermal systems in crystalline rock. Geophys. Res. Lett. 18(5), 955\u2013958 (1991).","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"84744_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geothermics.2015.08.003","volume":"63","author":"J Garcia","year":"2016","unstructured":"Garcia, J. et al. The Northwest Geysers EGS demonstration project, California: part 1\u2014characterization and reservoir response to injection. Geothermics 63, 97\u2013119 (2016).","journal-title":"Geothermics"},{"issue":"8","key":"84744_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1016\/S0196-8904(02)00117-6","volume":"44","author":"G Espinosa-Paredes","year":"2003","unstructured":"Espinosa-Paredes, G. & Garcia-Gutierrez, A. Estimation of static formation temperatures in geothermal wells. Energy Convers. Manag. 44(8), 1343\u20131355 (2003).","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"issue":"5\u20136","key":"84744_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1016\/S0375-6505(98)00036-4","volume":"27","author":"O Kato","year":"1998","unstructured":"Kato, O., Doi, N., Sakagawa, Y. & Uchida, T. Fracture systematics in and around well WD-1, Kakkonda geothermal field, Japan. Geothermics 27(5\u20136), 609\u2013629 (1998).","journal-title":"Geothermics"},{"key":"84744_CR11","unstructured":"Smith, R. & Shaw, H. Igneous-related geothermal systems. In Assessment of Geothermal Resources of the United States\u20141975, Vol. 726 (eds White, D. & Williams, D.) 58\u201383 (U.S. Geological Survey Circular, 1975)."},{"key":"84744_CR12","unstructured":"Smith, R. & Shaw, H. Igneous-related geothermal systems. In Assessment of Geothermal Resources of the United States, 1978, Vol. 790 (ed. Muffler, L.) 12\u201317 (U.S. Geological Survey Circular, 1979)."},{"key":"84744_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geothermics.2004.11.004","volume":"34","author":"GO Fri\u00f0leifsson","year":"2005","unstructured":"Fri\u00f0leifsson, G. O. & Elders, W. A. The Iceland deep drilling project: a search for deep unconventional geothermal resources. Geothermics 34, 269\u2013285 (2005).","journal-title":"Geothermics"},{"key":"84744_CR14","volume-title":"The Future of Geothermal Energy in the 21 Century Impact of Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) on the United States","author":"JW Tester","year":"2006","unstructured":"Tester, J. W. et al. The Future of Geothermal Energy in the 21 Century Impact of Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) on the United States (MIT Press, 2006)."},{"key":"84744_CR15","unstructured":"Fri\u00f0leifsson, G. O., Albertsson, A., Stefansson, B., Gunnlaugsson, E. & Adalsteinsson, H. Deep Unconventional geothermal resources: a major opportunity to harness new sources of sustainable energy. In: Proceedings, 20th World Energy Conference 21 (World Energy Council, 2007)."},{"key":"84744_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geothermics.2013.05.001","volume":"49","author":"WA Elders","year":"2014","unstructured":"Elders, W. A., Fri\u00f0leifsson, G. & Albertsson, A. Drilling into magma and the implications of the Iceland deep drilling project (IDDP) for high-temperature geothermal systems worldwide. Geothermics 49, 111\u2013118 (2014).","journal-title":"Geothermics"},{"issue":"8","key":"84744_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.2113\/gsecongeo.94.8.1193","volume":"94","author":"RO Fournier","year":"1999","unstructured":"Fournier, R. O. Hydrothermal processes related to movement of fluid from plastic into brittle rock in the magmatic-epithermal environment. Econ. Geol. 94(8), 1193\u20131211 (1999).","journal-title":"Econ. Geol."},{"key":"84744_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5705","DOI":"10.1029\/JB082i036p05705","volume":"82","author":"J Tullis","year":"1977","unstructured":"Tullis, J. & Yund, R. A. Experimental deformation of dry Westerly granite. J. Geophys. Res. 82, 5705\u20135718 (1977).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"84744_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-08108-5","volume":"7","author":"M Violay","year":"2017","unstructured":"Violay, M., Heap, M. J., Acosta, M. & Madonna, C. Porosity evolution at the brittle-ductile transition in the continental crust: implications for deep hydro-geothermal circulation. Sci. Rep. 7, 7705 (2017).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"4","key":"84744_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1111\/ter.12093","volume":"26","author":"H Saishu","year":"2014","unstructured":"Saishu, H., Okamoto, A. & Tsuchiya, N. The significance of silica precipitation on the formation of the permeable\u2013impermeable boundary within earth\u2019s crust. Terra Nova 26(4), 253\u2013259 (2014).","journal-title":"Terra Nova"},{"issue":"1","key":"84744_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1738.2007.00554.x","volume":"16","author":"N Tsuchiya","year":"2007","unstructured":"Tsuchiya, N. & Hirano, N. Chemical reaction diversity of geofluids revealed by hydrothermal experiments under sub- and supercritical states. Isl. Arc 16(1), 6\u201315 (2007).","journal-title":"Isl. Arc"},{"key":"84744_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1558","DOI":"10.1126\/science.265.5178.1558","volume":"265","author":"DE Moore","year":"1994","unstructured":"Moore, D. E., Lockner, D. A. & Byerlee, J. D. Reduction of permeability in granite at elevated temperatures. Science 265, 1558\u20131561 (1994).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"84744_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30551","DOI":"10.1029\/2000JB000010","volume":"106","author":"CA Morrow","year":"2001","unstructured":"Morrow, C. A., Moore, D. E. & Lockner, D. A. Permeability reduction in granite under hydrothermal conditions. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 30551\u201330560 (2001).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"84744_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2019.114306","volume":"260","author":"N Watanabe","year":"2020","unstructured":"Watanabe, N. et al. Stabilizing and enhancing permeability for sustainable and profitable energy extraction from superhot geothermal environments. Appl. Energy 260, 114306 (2020).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"84744_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geothermics.2015.12.011","volume":"63","author":"N Tsuchiya","year":"2016","unstructured":"Tsuchiya, N., Yamada, R. & Uno, M. Supercritical geothermal reservoir revealed by a granite-porphyry system. Geothermics 63, 182\u2013194 (2016).","journal-title":"Geothermics"},{"issue":"2","key":"84744_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2879","volume":"10","author":"N Watanabe","year":"2017","unstructured":"Watanabe, N. et al. Potentially exploitable supercritical geothermal resources in the ductile crust. Nat. Geosci. 10(2), 140\u2013144 (2017).","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"84744_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1613","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1225009","volume":"338","author":"P Weis","year":"2012","unstructured":"Weis, P., Driesner, T. & Heinrich, C. A. Porphyry-copper ore shells form at stable pressure-temperature fronts within dynamic fluid plumes. Science 338, 1613\u20131616 (2012).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"84744_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/s40517-017-0075-y","volume":"5","author":"T Reinsch","year":"2017","unstructured":"Reinsch, T. et al. Utilizing supercritical geothermal systems: a review of past ventures and ongoing research activities. Geotherm. Energy 5, 16 (2017).","journal-title":"Geotherm. Energy"},{"key":"84744_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2014.11.043","volume":"140","author":"BM Adams","year":"2015","unstructured":"Adams, B. M., Kuehn, T. H., Bielicki, J. M., Randolph, J. B. & Saar, M. O. A comparison of electric power output of CO2 plume geothermal (CPG) and brine geothermal systems for varying reservoir conditions. Appl. Energy 140, 365\u2013377 (2015).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"84744_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2017.06.056","volume":"204","author":"A Daniilidis","year":"2017","unstructured":"Daniilidis, A., Scholten, T., Hooghiem, J., Persis, C. D. & Herber, R. Geochemical implications of production and storage control by coupling a direct-use geothermal system with heat networks. Appl. Energy 204, 254\u2013270 (2017).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"84744_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2017.10.114","volume":"227","author":"G Cui","year":"2019","unstructured":"Cui, G. et al. The influence of complicated fluid\u2013rock interactions on the geothermal exploitation in the CO2 plume geothermal system. Appl. Energy 227, 49\u201363 (2019).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"84744_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2019.113569","volume":"253","author":"M Babaei","year":"2019","unstructured":"Babaei, M. & Nick, H. M. Performance of low-enthalpy geothermal systems: interplay of spatially correlated heterogeneity and well-doublet spacings. Appl. Energy 253, 113569 (2019).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"84744_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2019.04.036","volume":"247","author":"S Li","year":"2019","unstructured":"Li, S., Feng, X.-T., Zhang, D. & Tang, H. Coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical analysis of stimulation and production for fractured geothermal reservoirs. Appl. Energy 247, 40\u201359 (2019).","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"84744_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5468","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL073898","volume":"44","author":"N Watanabe","year":"2017","unstructured":"Watanabe, N., Egawa, M., Sakaguchi, K., Ishibashi, T. & Tsuchiya, N. Hydraulic fracturing and permeability enhancement in granite from subcritical\/brittle to supercritical\/ductile conditions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 44, 5468\u20135475 (2017).","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"84744_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-37634-z","volume":"9","author":"N Watanabe","year":"2019","unstructured":"Watanabe, N. et al. Cloud-fracture networks as a means of accessing superhot geothermal energy. Sci. Rep. 9, 939 (2019).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"84744_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9738","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-46320-7","volume":"9","author":"T Amagai","year":"2019","unstructured":"Amagai, T. et al. Silica nanoparticles produced by explosive flash vaporization during earthquakes. Sci. Rep. 9, 9738 (2019).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"issue":"B10","key":"84744_CR37","first-page":"2215","volume":"107","author":"W Lin","year":"2002","unstructured":"Lin, W. Permanent strain of thermal expansion and thermally induced microcracking in Inada granite. J. Geophys. Res. 107(B10), 2215 (2002).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"84744_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2013.08.012","volume":"83","author":"P Kar\u00e1sek","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kar\u00e1sek, P., \u0160t\u2019av\u00edkov\u00e1, L., Planeta, J., Hohnov\u00e1, B. & Roth, M. Solubility of fused silica in sub- and supercritical water: estimation from a thermodynamic model. J. Supercrit. Fluids 83, 72\u201377 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"issue":"22","key":"84744_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4831","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-7037(94)90214-3","volume":"58","author":"CE Manning","year":"1994","unstructured":"Manning, C. E. The solubility of quartz in H2O in the lower crust and upper mantle. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 58(22), 4831\u20134839 (1994).","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"84744_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400864874","volume-title":"Kinetic Theory in the Earth Sciences","author":"AC Lasaga","year":"1998","unstructured":"Lasaga, A. C. Kinetic Theory in the Earth Sciences (Princeton University Press, 1998)."},{"issue":"51","key":"84744_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25901","DOI":"10.1021\/jp0656328","volume":"110","author":"SK Ghosh","year":"2006","unstructured":"Ghosh, S. K., Alargova, R. G., Deguchi, S. & Tsujii, K. Dispersion stability of colloids in sub- and supercritical water. J. Phys. Chem. B 110(51), 25901\u201325907 (2006).","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"84744_CR42","first-page":"633","volume":"14","author":"BV Derjaguin","year":"1941","unstructured":"Derjaguin, B. V. & Landau, L. D. Theory of stability of highly charged lyophobic sols and adhesion of highly charged particles in solutions of electrolytes. Acta Physicochim. URSS 14, 633\u2013652 (1941).","journal-title":"Acta Physicochim. URSS"},{"key":"84744_CR43","volume-title":"Theory of the Stability of Lyophobic Colloids","author":"EJW Verwey","year":"1948","unstructured":"Verwey, E. J. W. & Overbeek, J. T. G. Theory of the Stability of Lyophobic Colloids (Elsevier, 1948)."},{"key":"84744_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biombioe.2013.07.011","volume":"59","author":"O Yakaboylu","year":"2013","unstructured":"Yakaboylu, O., Harinck, J., Gerton Smit, K. G. & de Jong, W. Supercritical water gasification of manure: a thermodynamic equilibrium modeling approach. Biomass Bioenergy 59, 253\u2013263 (2013).","journal-title":"Biomass Bioenergy"}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-021-84744-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-021-84744-2","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-021-84744-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,3]],"date-time":"2022-12-03T04:49:28Z","timestamp":1670042968000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-021-84744-2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,5]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["84744"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-021-84744-2","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"10 December 2020","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"17 February 2021","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"5 March 2021","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"5340"}}