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One possible explanation is related to the limitations of the so-called \u201cconventional\u201d tDCS, which uses large rectangular electrodes, resulting in a diffuse electric field. A new tDCS technique called high-definition tDCS (HD-tDCS) has been recently developed. HD-tDCS uses small ring electrodes and produces improved focality and greater magnitude of its aftereffects. This study tested whether HD-tDCS would improve exercise performance to a greater extent than conventional tDCS. Twelve endurance athletes (29.4\u2009\u00b1\u20097.3\u00a0years; 60.15\u2009\u00b1\u20095.09\u00a0ml kg<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup> min<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>)\u00a0were enrolled in this single-center, randomized, crossover, and sham-controlled trial. To test reliability, participants performed two time to exhaustion (TTE) tests (control conditions) on a cycle simulator with 80% of peak power until volitional exhaustion. Next, they randomly received HD-tDCS (2.4\u00a0mA), conventional (2.0\u00a0mA), or active sham tDCS (2.0\u00a0mA) over the motor cortex for 20-min before performing the TTE test. TTE, heart rate (HR), associative thoughts, peripheral (lower limbs), and whole-body ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded every minute. Outcome measures were reliable. There was no difference in TTE between HD-tDCS (853.1\u2009\u00b1\u2009288.6\u00a0s), simulated conventional (827.8\u2009\u00b1\u2009278.7\u00a0s), sham (794.3\u2009\u00b1\u2009271.2\u00a0s), or control conditions (TTE1\u2009=\u2009751.1\u2009\u00b1\u2009261.6\u00a0s or TTE2\u2009=\u2009770.8\u2009\u00b1\u2009250.6\u00a0s) [F<jats:sub>(1.95; 21.4)<\/jats:sub>\u2009=\u20091.537; <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u20090.24; \u03b7<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>p\u2009=\u20090.123]. There was no effect on peripheral or whole-body RPE and associative thoughts (<jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\u2009&gt;\u20090.05). No serious adverse effect was reported. A single session of neither HD-tDCS nor conventional tDCS changed exercise performance and psychophysiological responses in athletes, suggesting that a ceiling effect may exist.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-92670-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,6]],"date-time":"2021-07-06T10:04:11Z","timestamp":1625565851000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":46,"title":["Acute effect of high-definition and conventional tDCS on exercise performance and psychophysiological responses in endurance athletes: a randomized controlled trial"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8426-0488","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel Gomes","family":"da Silva Machado","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0493-8333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marom","family":"Bikson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8833-6956","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abhishek","family":"Datta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5026-7665","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Egas","family":"Caparelli-D\u00e1quer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gozde","family":"Unal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7870-3820","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abrah\u00e3o F.","family":"Baptista","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9016-8779","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edilson Serpeloni","family":"Cyrino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Li Min","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0954-5317","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edgard","family":"Morya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4609-1839","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandre","family":"Moreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8995-1392","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandre Hideki","family":"Okano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"92670_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2294","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000000923","volume":"48","author":"JL Taylor","year":"2016","unstructured":"Taylor, J. 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The City University of New York holds patents on brain stimulation with MB as an inventor. MB has equity in Soterix Medical Inc. MB consults, received grants, assigned inventions, and\/or serves on the SAB of Boston Scientific, GlaxoSmithKline, Mecta, Halo Neuroscience, X. Dr. Datta has equity in Soterix Medical, Inc., a startup company that aims to commercialize HD-tDCS. Dr. Datta also has patent rights to HD-tDCS technology.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"13911"}}