{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T06:23:24Z","timestamp":1790663004283,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,8]],"date-time":"2022-12-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1670457600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,8]],"date-time":"2022-12-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1670457600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Aerosols can transmit infectious diseases including SARS-CoV-2, influenza and norovirus. Flushed toilets emit aerosols that spread pathogens contained in feces, but little is known about the spatiotemporal evolution of these plumes or the velocity fields that transport them. Using laser light to illuminate ejected aerosols we quantify the kinematics of plumes emanating from a commercial flushometer-type toilet, and use the motion of aerosol particles to compute velocity fields of the associated flow. The toilet flush produces a strong chaotic jet with velocities exceeding 2 m\/s; this jet transports aerosols to heights reaching 1.5 m within 8 seconds of initiating a flush. Quantifying toilet plumes and associated flow velocities provides a foundation for future design strategies to mitigate plume formation or to disinfect pathogens within it.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-24686-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,8]],"date-time":"2022-12-08T11:18:52Z","timestamp":1670498332000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["Commercial toilets emit energetic and rapidly spreading aerosol plumes"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"John P.","family":"Crimaldi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aaron C.","family":"True","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karl G.","family":"Linden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark T.","family":"Hernandez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lars T.","family":"Larson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna K.","family":"Pauls","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"24686_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H.\u00a0Darlow, W.\u00a0Bale, Infective hazards of water-closets. Lancet pp. 1196\u20131200 (1959).","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(59)91201-2"},{"key":"24686_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"W.\u00a0Bound, R.\u00a0Atkinson, Bacterial aerosol from water closets. A comparison of two types of pan and two types of cover. Lancet pp. 1369\u20131370 (1966).","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(66)92156-8"},{"key":"24686_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1128\/am.30.2.229-237.1975","volume":"30","author":"CP Gerba","year":"1975","unstructured":"Gerba, C. P., Wallis, C. & Melnick, J. L. Microbiological hazards of household toilets: droplet production and the fate of residual organisms. Appl. Microbiol. 30, 229 (1975).","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"24686_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2005.02610.x","volume":"99","author":"J Barker","year":"2005","unstructured":"Barker, J. & Jones, M. The potential spread of infection caused by aerosol contamination of surfaces after flushing a domestic toilet. J. Appl. Microbiol. 99, 339 (2005).","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"24686_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0040310","volume":"33","author":"JH Schreck","year":"2021","unstructured":"Schreck, J. H., Lashaki, M. J., Hashemi, J., Dhanak, M. & Verma, S. Aerosol generation in public restrooms. Phys. Fluids 33, 033320 (2021).","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"24686_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2012.04.330","volume":"41","author":"DL Johnson","year":"2013","unstructured":"Johnson, D. L., Mead, K. R., Lynch, R. A. & Hirst, D. V. Lifting the lid on toilet plume aerosol: a literature review with suggestions for future research. Am. J. Infect. Control 41, 254 (2013).","journal-title":"Am. J. Infect. Control"},{"key":"24686_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2705","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.15121","volume":"131","author":"S Abney","year":"2021","unstructured":"Abney, S., Bright, K., McKinney, J., Ijaz, M. K. & Gerba, C. Toilet hygiene\u2013review and research needs. J. Appl. Microbiol. 131, 2705 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"24686_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-fluid-060220-113712","volume":"53","author":"L Bourouiba","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bourouiba, L. The fluid dynamics of disease transmission. Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 53, 473 (2021).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"24686_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vardoulakis, S., Espinoza\u00a0Oyarce, D.\u00a0A., & Donner, E.\u00a0 Transmission of COVID-19 and other infectious diseases in public washrooms: A systematic review. Sci. Total Environ.803, 149932 (2022).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.149932"},{"key":"24686_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhin.2011.08.010","volume":"80","author":"E Best","year":"2012","unstructured":"Best, E., Sandoe, J. & Wilcox, M. Potential for aerosolization of clostridium difficile after flushing toilets: the role of toilet lids in reducing environmental contamination risk. J. Hosp. Infect. 80, 1 (2012).","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Infect."},{"key":"24686_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Knowlton, S.\u00a0D. et\u00a0al., Bioaerosol concentrations generated from toilet flushing in a hospital-based patient care setting. Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control7 (2018).","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-018-0301-9"},{"key":"24686_CR12","first-page":"34","volume":"80","author":"DL Johnson","year":"2017","unstructured":"Johnson, D. L. et al. Persistence of bowl water contamination during sequential flushes of contaminated toilets. J. Environ. Health 80, 34 (2017).","journal-title":"J. Environ. Health"},{"key":"24686_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2018.11.009","volume":"47","author":"KA Aithinne","year":"2019","unstructured":"Aithinne, K. A., Cooper, C. W., Lynch, R. A. & Johnson, D. L. Toilet plume aerosol generation rate and environmental contamination following bowl water inoculation with clostridium difficile spores. Am. J. Infect. Control 47, 515 (2019).","journal-title":"Am. J. Infect. Control"},{"key":"24686_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1080\/02786826.2013.814911","volume":"47","author":"D Johnson","year":"2013","unstructured":"Johnson, D., Lynch, R., Marshall, C., Mead, K. & Hirst, D. Aerosol generation by modern flush toilets. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 47, 1047 (2013).","journal-title":"Aerosol Sci. Technol."},{"key":"24686_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0013318","volume":"32","author":"Y Li","year":"2020","unstructured":"Li, Y., Wang, J. X. & Chen, X. Can a toilet promote virus transmission? From a fluid dynamics perspective. Phys. Fluids 32, 065107 (2020).","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"24686_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, M.\u00a0C.\u00a0J., & Tham, K.\u00a0W. Public toilets with insufficient ventilation present high cross infection risk. Sci. Rep.11 (2021).","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-00166-0"},{"key":"24686_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-02938-0","volume":"11","author":"C Boles","year":"2021","unstructured":"Boles, C., Brown, G. & Nonnenmann, M. Determination of murine norovirus aerosol concentration during toilet flushing. Sci. Rep. 11, 1 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"24686_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1111\/ina.12406","volume":"28","author":"ACK Lai","year":"2018","unstructured":"Lai, A. C. K., Tan, T. F., Li, W. S. & Ip, D. K. M. Emission strength of airborne pathogens during toilet flushing. Indoor Air 28, 73 (2018).","journal-title":"Indoor Air"},{"key":"24686_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1080\/15459624.2022.2053693","volume":"19","author":"C Cai","year":"2022","unstructured":"Cai, C., Kim, P., Connor, T. H., Liu, Y. & Floyd, E. L. Reducing the particles generated by flushing institutional toilets. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 19, 318 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Occup. Environ. Hyg."},{"key":"24686_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2021.108463","volume":"207","author":"W Ali","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ali, W., Yang, Y.-F., Gong, L., Yan, C. & Cui, B.-B. Emission characteristics and quantitative health risk assessment of bioaerosols in an indoor toilet after flushing under various ventilation scenarios. Build. Environ. 207, 108463 (2022).","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"24686_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1111\/ina.12044","volume":"23","author":"L Morawska","year":"2013","unstructured":"Morawska, L. et al. Indoor aerosols: from personal exposure to risk assessment. Indoor Air 23, 462 (2013).","journal-title":"Indoor Air"},{"key":"24686_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1128\/br.30.3.517-529.1966","volume":"30","author":"RB Couch","year":"1966","unstructured":"Couch, R. B., Cate, T. R., Douglas, R. G. Jr., Gerone, P. J. & Knight, V. Effect of route of inoculation on experimental respiratory viral disease in volunteers and evidence for airborne transmission. Bacteriol. Rev. 30, 517 (1966).","journal-title":"Bacteriol. Rev."},{"key":"24686_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.148341","volume":"792","author":"SJ Dancer","year":"2021","unstructured":"Dancer, S. J., Li, Y., Hart, A., Tang, J. W. & Jones, D. L. What is the risk of acquiring SARS-cov-2 from the use of public toilets?. Sci. Total Environ. 792, 148341 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"24686_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kramer, A., & Assadian, O. Survival of microorganisms on inanimate surfaces, in Use of biocidal surfaces for reduction of healthcare acquired infections (Springer, 2014), pp. 7\u201326.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-08057-4_2"},{"key":"24686_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1564","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2004973","volume":"382","author":"N van Doremalen","year":"2020","unstructured":"van Doremalen, N. et al. Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-Cov-2 as compared with SARS-Cov-1. N. Engl. J. Med. 382, 1564 (2020).","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"24686_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.estlett.0c00966","volume":"8","author":"AK Pitol","year":"2021","unstructured":"Pitol, A. K. & Julian, T. R. Community transmission of SARS-Cov-2 by surfaces: risks and risk reduction strategies. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 8, 263 (2021).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett."},{"key":"24686_CR27","volume":"214","author":"P Li","year":"2022","unstructured":"Li, P., Zhang, T. T. & Zhang, Y. Measuring the flushing-generated flow and aerosols in lavatory of commercial aircraft. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 214, 108948 (2022).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett."},{"key":"24686_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pdpdt.2021.102334","volume":"34","author":"H Kitagawa","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kitagawa, H. et al. Pilot study on the decontamination efficacy of an installed 222-nm ultraviolet disinfection device (Care222), with a motion sensor, in a shared bathroom. Photodiagnosis Photodyn. Ther. 34, 102334 (2021).","journal-title":"Photodiagnosis Photodyn. Ther."},{"key":"24686_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1111\/ina.12752","volume":"31","author":"ACK Lai","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lai, A. C. K. & Nunayon, S. S. A new UVC-LED system for disinfection of pathogens generated by toilet flushing. Indoor Air 31, 324 (2021).","journal-title":"Indoor Air"},{"key":"24686_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1080\/02786826.2010.542785","volume":"45","author":"M VanSciver","year":"2011","unstructured":"VanSciver, M., Miller, S. & Hertzberg, J. Particle image velocimetry of human cough. Aerosol Sci. Tech. 45, 415 (2011).","journal-title":"Aerosol Sci. Tech."},{"key":"24686_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-fluid-120710-101204","volume":"45","author":"J Westerweel","year":"2013","unstructured":"Westerweel, J., Elsinga, G. E. & Adrian, R. J. Particle image velocimetry for complex and turbulent flows. Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 45, 409 (2013).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"24686_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s00348-005-0962-z","volume":"39","author":"B Wieneke","year":"2005","unstructured":"Wieneke, B. Stereo-PIV using self-calibration on particle images. Exp. Fluids 39, 267 (2005).","journal-title":"Exp. Fluids"},{"key":"24686_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raffel, M., Willert, C.\u00a0E., & Kompenhans, J. Particle image velocimetry: a practical guide, vol.\u00a02 (Springer, 1998).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-03637-2"},{"key":"24686_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S166","DOI":"10.1007\/s003480070018","volume":"29","author":"M Olsen","year":"2000","unstructured":"Olsen, M. & Adrian, R. Out-of-focus effects on particle image visibility and correlation in microscopic particle image velocimetry. Exp. Fluids 29, S166 (2000).","journal-title":"Exp. Fluids"},{"key":"24686_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1629","DOI":"10.1007\/s00348-012-1280-x","volume":"52","author":"CJ K\u00e4hler","year":"2012","unstructured":"K\u00e4hler, C. J., Scharnowski, S. & Cierpka, C. On the resolution limit of digital particle image velocimetry. Exp. Fluids 52, 1629 (2012).","journal-title":"Exp. Fluids"},{"key":"24686_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/8\/12\/003","volume":"8","author":"R Adrian","year":"1997","unstructured":"Adrian, R. Dynamic ranges of velocity and spatial resolution of particle image velocimetry. Meas. Sci. Technol. 8, 1393 (1997).","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"24686_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keane, R.\u00a0D., & Adrian, R.\u00a0J. Optimization of particle image velocimeters. I. double pulsed systems. Meas. Sci. Technol.1, 1202 (1990).","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/1\/11\/013"},{"key":"24686_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1007\/s00348-001-0396-1","volume":"32","author":"L Gui","year":"2002","unstructured":"Gui, L. & Wereley, S. A correlation-based continuous window-shift technique to reduce the peak-locking effect in digital PIV image evaluation. Exp. Fluids 32, 506 (2002).","journal-title":"Exp. Fluids"},{"key":"24686_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/24\/6\/065301","volume":"24","author":"JJ Charonko","year":"2013","unstructured":"Charonko, J. J. & Vlachos, P. P. Estimation of uncertainty bounds for individual particle image velocimetry measurements from cross-correlation peak ratio. Meas. Sci. Technol. 24, 065301 (2013).","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"24686_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/26\/7\/074002","volume":"26","author":"B Wieneke","year":"2015","unstructured":"Wieneke, B. PIV uncertainty quantification from correlation statistics. Meas. Sci. Technol. 26, 074002 (2015).","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-022-24686-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-022-24686-5","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-022-24686-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,8]],"date-time":"2022-12-08T11:19:28Z","timestamp":1670498368000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-022-24686-5"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,8]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["24686"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-022-24686-5","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,8]]},"assertion":[{"value":"21 September 2022","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 November 2022","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"8 December 2022","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"20493"}}