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The extent of defensive PPS is measured by recording the hand-blink reflex (HBR), a subcortical defensive response. Higher-order cortical areas involved in PPS representation exert top-down modulation on brainstem circuits subserving HBR. However, it is not yet known whether pre-existing models of social relationships (internal working models, IWM) originating from early attachment experiences influence defensive responses. We hypothesized that organized IWM ensure adequate top-down regulation of brainstem activity mediating HBR, whereas disorganized IWM are associated with altered response patterns. To investigate attachment-dependent modulation on defensive responses, we used the Adult Attachment Interview to determine IWM and recorded HBR in two sessions (with or without the neurobehavioral attachment system activated). As expected, the HBR magnitude in individuals with organized IWM was modulated by the threat proximity to the face, regardless of the session. In contrast, for individuals with disorganized IWM, attachment system activation enhances HBR regardless of the threat position, suggesting that triggering emotional attachment experiences magnifies the threatening valence of external stimuli. Our results indicate that the attachment system exerts a strong modulation on defensive responses and the magnitude of PPS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-30985-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,5]],"date-time":"2023-04-05T23:42:01Z","timestamp":1680738121000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["The role of early attachment experiences in modulating defensive peripersonal space"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Carlotta","family":"Fossataro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mauro","family":"Adenzato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Margherita","family":"Bruno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Fontana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Garbarini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rita B.","family":"Ardito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"30985_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2019.01.016","volume":"99","author":"A Serino","year":"2019","unstructured":"Serino, A. 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