{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T20:16:14Z","timestamp":1787170574346,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,13]],"date-time":"2023-04-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681344000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,13]],"date-time":"2023-04-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681344000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Solar flares are one of the severest solar activities that have important effects on near-Earth space. Previous studies have shown that flight arrival delays increase as a result of solar flares, but the intrinsic mechanism behind this relationship is still unknown. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of flight departure delays during 57 solar X-ray events by using a huge amount of flight data (~\u20095\u2009\u00d7\u200910\n                    <jats:sup>6<\/jats:sup>\n                    records) gathered over a 5-year period. It is found that the average flight departure delay time during solar X-ray events increased by 20.68% (7.67\u00a0min) compared to quiet periods. Our analysis also revealed apparent time and latitude dependencies, with flight delays being more serious on the dayside than on the nightside and longer (shorter) delays tending to occur in lower (higher) latitude airports during solar X-ray events. Furthermore, our results suggest that the intensity of solar flares (soft X-ray flux) and the Solar Zenith Angle directly modulate flight departure delay time and delay rate. These results indicate that communication interferences caused by solar flares directly affect flight departure delays. This work expands our conventional understanding of the impacts of solar flares on human society and provides new insights for preventing or coping with flight delays.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-33306-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,13]],"date-time":"2023-04-13T12:03:07Z","timestamp":1681387387000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Characteristics of flight delays during solar flares"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"X. H.","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Y.","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"F. S.","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8605-2159","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"X. S.","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M. H.","family":"Bo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"H. W.","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"D. S.","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"L.","family":"Bian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"B. Y.","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"W. Y.","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Y. S.","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Z.","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J. P.","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"P. B.","family":"Zuo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"C. W.","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"X. J.","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Z. L.","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"P.","family":"Zou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"33306_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-010-9705-4","volume":"159","author":"IG Hannah","year":"2011","unstructured":"Hannah, I. G. et al. Microflares and the statistics of X-ray flares. Space Sci. Rev. 159, 263\u2013300. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11214-010-9705-4 (2011).","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"33306_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-010-9103-1","volume":"31","author":"AK Singh","year":"2010","unstructured":"Singh, A. K., Siingh, D. & Singh, R. P. Space weather: Physics, effects and predictability. Surv. Geophys. 31, 581\u2013638. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10712-010-9103-1 (2010).","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"33306_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1038\/s41567-021-01203-5","volume":"17","author":"J Liu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Liu, J. et al. Solar flare effects in the Earth\u2019s magnetosphere. Nat. Phys. 17, 807\u2013812. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41567-021-01203-5 (2021).","journal-title":"Nat. Phys."},{"key":"33306_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1029\/2018sw001932","volume":"16","author":"Y Yasyukevich","year":"2018","unstructured":"Yasyukevich, Y. et al. The 6 September 2017 X-class solar flares and their impacts on the ionosphere, GNSS, and HF radio wave propagation. Space Weather 16, 1013\u20131027. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2018sw001932 (2018).","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"33306_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.1029\/2018SW001933","volume":"16","author":"J Berdermann","year":"2018","unstructured":"Berdermann, J. et al. Ionospheric response to the X9.3 flare on 6 September 2017 and its implication for navigation services over Europe. Space Weather 16, 1604\u20131615. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2018SW001933 (2018).","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"33306_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1051\/swsc\/2018029","volume":"8","author":"C Marque","year":"2018","unstructured":"Marque, C. et al. Solar radio emission as a disturbance of aeronautical radionavigation. J. Space Weather Space Clim. 8, 1\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1051\/swsc\/2018029 (2018).","journal-title":"J. Space Weather Space Clim."},{"key":"33306_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2005ja011305","volume":"110","author":"AG Emslie","year":"2005","unstructured":"Emslie, A. G., Dennis, B. R., Holman, G. D. & Hudson, H. S. Refinements to flare energy estimates: A followup to '\u201dEnergy partition in two solar flare\/CME events\u201d by A. G. Emslie et al. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 110, 1\u20134. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2005ja011305 (2005).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"33306_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/s11214-010-9721-4","volume":"158","author":"HS Hudson","year":"2011","unstructured":"Hudson, H. S. Global properties of solar flares. Space Sci. Rev. 158, 5\u201341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11214-010-9721-4 (2011).","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"33306_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3847\/1538-4357\/836\/1\/17","volume":"836","author":"MJ Aschwanden","year":"2017","unstructured":"Aschwanden, M. J. et al. Global energetics of solar flares. V. Energy closure in flares and coronal mass ejections. Astrophys. J. 836, 1\u201317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3847\/1538-4357\/836\/1\/17 (2017).","journal-title":"Astrophys. J."},{"key":"33306_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1122099","volume":"311","author":"M Mendillo","year":"2006","unstructured":"Mendillo, M., Withers, P., Hinson, D., Rishbeth, H. & Reinisch, B. Effects of solar flares on the ionosphere of mars. Science 311, 1135\u20131138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.1122099 (2006).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"33306_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2005ja011008","volume":"110","author":"NR Thomson","year":"2005","unstructured":"Thomson, N. R., Rodger, C. J. & Clilverd, M. A. Large solar flares and their ionospheric D region enhancements. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 110, 1\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2005ja011008 (2005).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"33306_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2020.10.015","volume":"67","author":"L Quan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Quan, L., Cai, B., Hu, X., Xu, Q. & Li, L. Study of ionospheric D region changes during solar flares using MF radar measurements. Adv. Space Res. 67, 715\u2013721. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.asr.2020.10.015 (2021).","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"33306_CR13","unstructured":"https:\/\/ecfr.io\/Title-14\/Section-121.99"},{"key":"33306_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1002\/inst.12121","volume":"19","author":"S Jonas","year":"2016","unstructured":"Jonas, S., Mccarron, E. & Murtagh, W. Space weather policy and effects. Insight 19, 20\u201323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/inst.12121 (2016).","journal-title":"Insight"},{"key":"33306_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.1029\/2018SW001897","volume":"16","author":"R Redmon","year":"2018","unstructured":"Redmon, R., Seaton, D., Steenburgh, R., Jing, H. & Rodriguez, J. September 2017\u2019s geoeffective space weather and impacts to Caribbean radio communications during hurricane response. Space Weather 16, 1190\u20131201. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2018SW001897 (2018).","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"33306_CR16","unstructured":"Kalinin, Y. K. & Lukyanova, R. Y. Feed in civil aviation accidents due heliogeophysical disturbances. Events of the first half of April 2010. Geliogeofizicheskie Issledovaniya 87\u2013102 (2014)."},{"key":"33306_CR17","unstructured":"ICAO. Manual on Space Weather Information in Support of International Air Navigation (2018)."},{"key":"33306_CR18","unstructured":"UK CAA. CAP 1428: Impacts of space weather on aviation (2020)."},{"key":"33306_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2011.10.003","volume":"33","author":"J Ferguson","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ferguson, J., Kara, A. Q., Hoffman, K. & Sherry, L. Estimating domestic US airline cost of delay based on European model. Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol. 33, 311\u2013323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.trc.2011.10.003 (2013).","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"33306_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tre.2014.05.016","volume":"69","author":"B Zou","year":"2014","unstructured":"Zou, B. & Hansen, M. Flight delay impact on airfare and flight frequency: A comprehensive assessment. Transp. Res. Part E 69, 54\u201374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tre.2014.05.016 (2014).","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part E"},{"key":"33306_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3246","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-30424-2","volume":"13","author":"Y Wang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wang, Y. et al. Additional flight delays and magnetospheric\u2013ionospheric disturbances during solar storms. Sci. Rep. 13, 3246. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-023-30424-2 (2023).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"33306_CR22","unstructured":"https:\/\/ngdc.noaa.gov\/stp\/solar\/solarflares.html"},{"key":"33306_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2048","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2022.11.020","volume":"71","author":"N Plutino","year":"2023","unstructured":"Plutino, N., Berrilli, F., Del Moro, D. & Giovannelli, L. A new catalogue of solar flare events from soft X-ray GOES signal in the period 1986\u20132020. Adv. Space Res. 71, 2048\u20132058. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.asr.2022.11.020 (2023).","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"33306_CR24","unstructured":"https:\/\/www.ngdc.noaa.gov\/stp\/space-weather\/solar-data\/solar-features\/solar-flares\/x-rays\/goes\/xrs\/"},{"key":"33306_CR25","unstructured":"http:\/\/www.srl.caltech.edu\/ACE\/ASC\/DATA\/level3\/icmetable2.htm"},{"key":"33306_CR26","unstructured":"https:\/\/umbra.nascom.nasa.gov\/SEP\/"},{"key":"33306_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jairtraman.2012.01.016","volume":"23","author":"J-T Wong","year":"2012","unstructured":"Wong, J.-T. & Tsai, S.-C. A survival model for flight delay propagation. J. Air Transp. Manag. 23, 5\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jairtraman.2012.01.016 (2012).","journal-title":"J. Air Transp. Manag."},{"key":"33306_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/7069380","volume":"2019","author":"Y Cao","year":"2019","unstructured":"Cao, Y., Zhu, C., Wang, Y. & Li, Q. A Method of reducing flight delay by exploring internal mechanism of flight delays. J. Adv. Transp. 2019, 1\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2019\/7069380 (2019).","journal-title":"J. Adv. Transp."},{"key":"33306_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7855","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-87279-8","volume":"11","author":"E Mitsokapas","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mitsokapas, E., Schfer, B., Harris, R. & Beck, C. Statistical characterization of airplane delays. Sci. Rep. 11, 7855. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-021-87279-8 (2021).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"33306_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.3141\/2214-11","volume":"2214","author":"T Morisset","year":"2011","unstructured":"Morisset, T. & Odoni, A. Capacity, delay, and schedule reliability at major airports in Europe and the United States. Transp. Res. Rec. 2214, 85\u201393. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3141\/2214-11 (2011).","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"33306_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Proen\u00e7a, H. M., Klijn, R., B\u00e4ck, T. & Leeuwen, M. V. Identifying flight delay patterns using diverse subgroup discovery. In 2018 IEEE Symposium Series on Computational Intelligence (SSCI) 60\u201367. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/SSCI.2018.8628933 (2018).","DOI":"10.1109\/SSCI.2018.8628933"},{"key":"33306_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trip.2020.100189","volume":"7","author":"DA Pamplona","year":"2020","unstructured":"Pamplona, D. A. & Jorge, C. An overview of air delay: A case study of the Brazilian scenario. Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect. 7, 1\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.trip.2020.100189 (2020).","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect."},{"key":"33306_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1749","DOI":"10.1007\/bf02886258","volume":"45","author":"DH Zhang","year":"2000","unstructured":"Zhang, D. H. & Xiao, Z. Study of the ionospheric TEC using GPS during the large solar flare burst on Nov 6, 1997. Chin. Sci. Bull. 45, 1749\u20131752. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/bf02886258 (2000).","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"33306_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2001rs002542","volume":"37","author":"DH Zhang","year":"2002","unstructured":"Zhang, D. H., Xiao, Z., Igarashi, K. & Ma, G. Y. GPS-derived ionospheric total electron content response to a solar flare that occurred on 14 July 2000. Radio Sci. 37, 1\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2001rs002542 (2002).","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"33306_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2009.05.015","volume":"71","author":"A Meza","year":"2009","unstructured":"Meza, A., Van Zele, M. A. & Rovira, M. Solar flare effect on the geomagnetic field and ionosphere. J. Atmos. Solar Terr. Phys. 71, 1322\u20131332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jastp.2009.05.015 (2009).","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Solar Terr. Phys."},{"key":"33306_CR36","unstructured":"https:\/\/www.swpc.noaa.gov\/products\/d-region-absorption-predictions-d-rap"},{"key":"33306_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2298","DOI":"10.1029\/2018ja026175","volume":"124","author":"L Qian","year":"2019","unstructured":"Qian, L. et al. Solar flare and geomagnetic storm effects on the thermosphere and ionosphere during 6\u201311 September 2017. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 124, 2298\u20132311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2018ja026175 (2019).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"33306_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"A10309","DOI":"10.1029\/2011ja016777","volume":"116","author":"LY Qian","year":"2011","unstructured":"Qian, L. Y., Burns, A. G., Chamberlin, P. C. & Solomon, S. C. Variability of thermosphere and ionosphere responses to solar flares. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 116, A10309. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2011ja016777 (2011).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"33306_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5747","DOI":"10.1029\/2018ja025294","volume":"123","author":"J Pettit","year":"2018","unstructured":"Pettit, J. et al. Effects of the September 2005 solar flares and solar proton events on the middle atmosphere in WACCM. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 123, 5747\u20135763. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2018ja025294 (2018).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"33306_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2004.01.027","volume":"36","author":"W Wan","year":"2005","unstructured":"Wan, W., Liu, L., Yuan, H., Ning, B. & Zhang, S. The GPS measured SITEC caused by the very intense solar flare on July 14, 2000. Adv. Space Res. 36, 2465\u20132469. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.asr.2004.01.027 (2005).","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"33306_CR41","unstructured":"Schumer, E. A. Improved Modeling of Midlatitude D-Region Ionospheric Absorption of High Frequency Radio Signals During Solar X-Ray Flares. Ph.D. Dissertation thesis, United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base (2010)."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-023-33306-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-023-33306-9","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-023-33306-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,13]],"date-time":"2023-04-13T12:16:44Z","timestamp":1681388204000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-023-33306-9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,13]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["33306"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-023-33306-9","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"19 October 2022","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"10 April 2023","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"13 April 2023","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"6101"}}