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To gain more accurate understanding, the effects of T-2 toxin were investigated in the present study in chicken-derived three-dimensional (3D) primary hepatic cell cultures. 3D spheroids were treated with three concentrations (100, 500, 1000\u00a0nM) of T-2 toxin for 24\u00a0h. Cellular metabolic activity declined in all treated groups as reflected by the Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, while extracellular lactate dehydrogenase activity was increased after 500\u00a0nM T-2 toxin exposure. The levels of oxidative stress markers malondialdehyde and protein carbonyl were reduced by the toxin, suggesting effective antioxidant compensatory mechanisms of the liver. Concerning the pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-6 concentration was decreased, while IL-8 concentration was increased by 100\u00a0nM T-2 toxin exposure, indicating the multifaceted immunomodulatory action of the toxin. Further, the metabolic profile of hepatic spheroids was also modulated, confirming the altered lipid and amino acid metabolism of toxin-exposed liver cells. Based on these results, T-2 toxin affected cell viability, hepatocellular metabolism and inflammatory response, likely carried out its toxic effects by affecting the oxidative homeostasis of the cells.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-51689-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,12]],"date-time":"2024-01-12T11:02:17Z","timestamp":1705057337000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Investigation of the effects of T-2 toxin in chicken-derived three-dimensional hepatic cell cultures"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"J\u00falia","family":"V\u00f6r\u00f6sh\u00e1zi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M\u00e1t\u00e9","family":"Mackei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Csilla","family":"Seb\u0151k","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrik","family":"Tr\u00e1j","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rege Anna","family":"M\u00e1rton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"D\u00e1vid G\u00e9za","family":"Horv\u00e1th","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Korinna","family":"Huber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zsuzsanna","family":"Neogr\u00e1dy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"G\u00e1bor","family":"M\u00e1tis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"51689_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3441","DOI":"10.1021\/jf200767q","volume":"59","author":"Y Li","year":"2011","unstructured":"Li, Y. et al. 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