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These delayed gains are order-of-movements specific. However, in several perceptual learning tasks, time post-learning, rather than an interval of sleep, may suffice for the expression of delayed performance gains. Here we tested whether the affordance of a sleep interval is necessary for the expression of delayed performance gains after FOS training by repeated observation. Participants were trained by observing videos displaying a left hand repeatedly performing a 5-element FOS. To assess post-session observation-related learning and delayed gains participants were tested in performing the observed (trained) and an unobserved (new, the 5-elements mirror-reversed) FOS sequences. Repeated observation of a FOS conferred no advantage to its performance, compared to the unobserved FOS, immediately after practice. However, a clear advantage for the observed FOS emerged by 12\u00a0h post-training, irrespective of whether this interval included sleep or not; the largest gains appeared by 24\u00a0h post-training. These results indicate that time-dependent, offline consolidation processes take place after observation training even in the absence of sleep; akin to perceptual learning rather than physical FOS practice.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-53004-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,18]],"date-time":"2024-02-18T15:02:36Z","timestamp":1708268556000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Sequence-specific delayed gains in motor fluency evolve after movement observation training in the absence of early sleep"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Rinatia","family":"Maaravi-Hesseg","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sigal","family":"Cohen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Avi","family":"Karni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"53004_CR1","first-page":"81","volume":"67","author":"JR Anderson","year":"1982","unstructured":"Anderson, J. 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