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Forty-six dogs were exposed to three test conditions in which a food reward, initially available, was denied when in the presence of either a human (Human condition) or a dog audience (Dog condition), or in the absence of a visible audience (Non-social condition). Salivary cortisol was collected to evaluate the stress\/arousal activation in the different conditions. Compared to the Non-social condition, the presence of a conspecific evoked more facial expressions, according to the DogFACS (Facial Action Coding System, an anatomically based tool to analyze facial expressions in domestic dogs), (EAD105\u2014Ears downward), displacement behaviours (AD137\u2014Nose licking, AD37\u2014Lip wiping), tail wagging, whining, and panting (AD126). When facing a conspecific, dogs assumed a more avoidant attitude, keeping a distance and not looking at the stimuli, compared to when in the presence of the human partner. Dogs also exhibited more facial expressions (EAD102\u2014Ears Adductor, EAD104\u2014Ears Rotator), displacement behaviours (AD137\u2014Nose licking, AD37\u2014Lip wiping), panting (AD126) and whining when facing the conspecific than the human partner. Post-test cortisol was not influenced by any condition, and no association between pre-test cortisol and behavioural variables was found, thus strong differences in the levels of stress\/arousal were unlikely to be responsible for differences in behavior between conditions. Considering the current results in the context of the available literature, we suggest that the higher displacement behaviors exhibited with the conspecifics were likely due to an increased level of uncertainty regarding the situations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-58757-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,25]],"date-time":"2024-04-25T17:03:11Z","timestamp":1714064591000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Intra and interspecific audience effect on domestic dogs' behavioural displays and facial expressions"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4440-351X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giulia","family":"Pedretti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chiara","family":"Canori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elisa","family":"Costantini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9466-3662","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rupert","family":"Palme","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paola","family":"Valsecchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Marshall-Pescini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,25]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"58757_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/S0195-5616(97)50048-9","volume":"27","author":"BS Simpson","year":"1997","unstructured":"Simpson, B. 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