{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T21:53:02Z","timestamp":1787003582175,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]],"date-time":"2024-06-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717632000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]],"date-time":"2024-06-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717632000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Herbal medicine combined with nanoparticles has caught much interest in clinical dental practice, yet the incorporation of chitosan with\n                    <jats:italic>Salvadora persica<\/jats:italic>\n                    (\n                    <jats:italic>S. persica<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) extract as an oral care product has not been explored. The aim of this study was to evaluate the combined effectiveness of\n                    <jats:italic>Salvadora persica<\/jats:italic>\n                    (\n                    <jats:italic>S. persica<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) and Chitosan nanoparticles (ChNPs) against oropharyngeal microorganisms. Agar well diffusion, minimum inhibitory concentration, and minimal lethal concentration assays were used to assess the antimicrobial activity of different concentrations of ethanolic extracts of\n                    <jats:italic>S. persica<\/jats:italic>\n                    and ChNPs against selected fungal strains, Gram-positive, and Gram-negative bacteria. A mixture of 10%\n                    <jats:italic>S. persica<\/jats:italic>\n                    and 0.5% ChNPs was prepared (SChNPs) and its synergistic effect against the tested microbes was evaluated. Furthermore, the strain that was considered most sensitive was subjected to a 24-h treatment with SChNPs mixture; and examined using SEM, FT-IR and GC\u2013MS analysis.\n                    <jats:italic>S. persica<\/jats:italic>\n                    extract and ChNPs exhibited concentration-dependent antimicrobial activities against all tested strains.\n                    <jats:italic>S. persica<\/jats:italic>\n                    extract and ChNPs at 10% were most effective against\n                    <jats:italic>S. pneumoni<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>K. pneumoni<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and\n                    <jats:italic>C. albicans<\/jats:italic>\n                    . SEM images confirmed the synergistic effect of the SChNPs mixture, revealing\n                    <jats:italic>S. pneumonia<\/jats:italic>\n                    cells with increased irregularity and higher cell lysis compared to the individual solutions. GC\u2013MS and FT-IR analysis of SChNPs showed many active antimicrobial phytocompounds and some additional peaks, respectively. The synergy of the mixture of SChNPs in the form of mouth-rinsing solutions can be a promising approach for the control of oropharyngeal microbes that are implicated in viral secondary bacterial infections.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-63636-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]],"date-time":"2024-06-06T04:07:30Z","timestamp":1717646850000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Synergistic effect of Salvadora persica and chitosan nanoparticles against oropharyngeal microorganisms"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Hanan","family":"Balto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mounir Salim","family":"Bekhit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sayed H.","family":"Auda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Afaf","family":"Elansary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ramesa Shafi","family":"Bhat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Najat","family":"Marraiki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Solaiman","family":"Al-Hadlaq","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"63636_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/nmicrobiol.2016.31","volume":"1","author":"LN Segal","year":"2016","unstructured":"Segal, L. N. et al. Enrichment of the lung microbiome with oral taxa is associated with lung inflammation of a Th17 phenotype. Nat. Microbiol. 1, 1\u201311 (2016).","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"63636_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1575","DOI":"10.1016\/S0012-3692(15)31374-X","volume":"126","author":"AA El-Solh","year":"2004","unstructured":"El-Solh, A. A. et al. Colonization of dental plaques: A reservoir of respiratory pathogens for hospital-acquired pneumonia in institutionalized elders. Chest 126, 1575\u20131582 (2004).","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"63636_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1840","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.01840","volume":"11","author":"L Bao","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bao, L. et al. Oral microbiome and SARS-CoV-2: Beware of lung co-infection. Front. Microbiol. 11, 1840 (2020).","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"63636_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1097\/MCP.0b013e3280f3bff4","volume":"13","author":"S Sharma","year":"2007","unstructured":"Sharma, S., Maycher, B. & Eschun, G. Radiological imaging in pneumonia: Recent innovations. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 13, 159\u2013169 (2007).","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med."},{"key":"63636_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(06)70466-2","volume":"6","author":"JF Brundage","year":"2006","unstructured":"Brundage, J. F. Interactions between influenza and bacterial respiratory pathogens: Implications for pandemic preparedness. Lancet Infect. Dis. 6, 303\u2013312 (2006).","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"63636_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1002\/JPER.19-0043","volume":"91","author":"R Hata","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hata, R. et al. Poor oral hygiene is associated with the detection of obligate anaerobes in pneumonia. J. Periodontol. 91, 65\u201373 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"63636_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1177\/154405910808700602","volume":"87","author":"A Ishikawa","year":"2008","unstructured":"Ishikawa, A., Yoneyama, T., Hirota, K., Miyake, Y. & Miyatake, K. Professional oral health care reduces the number of oropharyngeal bacteria. J. Dent. Res. 87, 594\u2013598 (2008).","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"63636_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)75550-1","volume":"354","author":"T Yoneyama","year":"1999","unstructured":"Yoneyama, T., Yoshida, M., Matsui, T. & Sasaki, H. Oral care and pneumonia. The Lancet 354, 515 (1999).","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"key":"63636_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1177\/0885066608326972","volume":"24","author":"CS Sona","year":"2009","unstructured":"Sona, C. S. et al. The impact of a simple, low-cost oral care protocol on ventilator-associated pneumonia rates in a surgical intensive care unit. J. Intensive Care Med. 24, 54\u201362 (2009).","journal-title":"J. Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"63636_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1532-5415.2002.50106.x","volume":"50","author":"T Yoneyama","year":"2002","unstructured":"Yoneyama, T. et al. Oral care reduces pneumonia in older patients in nursing homes. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 50, 430\u2013433 (2002).","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"63636_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1623","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.46.0104","volume":"46","author":"T Kitamura","year":"2007","unstructured":"Kitamura, T. et al. Can we prevent influenza-like illnesses by gargling?. Intern. Med. 46, 1623\u20131624 (2007).","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"63636_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-009-0824-3","volume":"29","author":"E Noumi","year":"2010","unstructured":"Noumi, E., Snoussi, M., Hajlaoui, H., Valentin, E. & Bakhrouf, A. Antifungal properties of Salvadora persica and Juglans regia L. extracts against oral Candida strains. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 29, 81\u201388 (2010).","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"63636_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1474","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.2008.070506","volume":"79","author":"AH Sofrata","year":"2008","unstructured":"Sofrata, A. H., Claesson, R. L., Lingstr\u00f6m, P. K. & Gustafsson, A. K. Strong antimicrobial effect of miswak against oral microorganisms associated with periodontitis and caries. J. Periodontol. 79, 1474\u20131479 (2008).","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"63636_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.33899\/rden.2007.9041","volume":"8","author":"MY Taha","year":"2007","unstructured":"Taha, M. Y. Antiviral effect of ethanolic extract of Salvadora persica (Siwak) on herpes simplex virus infection. Al-Rafidain Dent. J. 8, 50\u201355 (2007).","journal-title":"Al-Rafidain Dent. J."},{"key":"63636_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.4103\/1305-7456.178297","volume":"10","author":"F Niazi","year":"2016","unstructured":"Niazi, F., Naseem, M., Khurshid, Z., Zafar, M. S. & Almas, K. Role of Salvadora persica chewing stick (miswak): A natural toothbrush for holistic oral health. Eur. J. Dent. 10, 301\u2013308 (2016).","journal-title":"Eur. J. Dent."},{"key":"63636_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3635","DOI":"10.4066\/biomedicalresearch.29-18-1081","volume":"29","author":"MK Almaghrabi","year":"2018","unstructured":"Almaghrabi, M. K. Antimicrobial activity of Salvadora persica on Streptococcus pneumoniae. Biomed. Res. 29, 3635\u20133637 (2018).","journal-title":"Biomed. Res."},{"key":"63636_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enfcli.2019.07.112","volume":"30","author":"N Landu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Landu, N., Sjattar, E. L., Massi, M. N. & Yusuf, S. The effectiveness of Salvadora persica stick on the colonization of oral pathogens in mechanically ventilated patients in the intensive care unit (ICU): A pilot study. Enferm. Cl\u00ednica 30, 327\u2013331 (2020).","journal-title":"Enferm. Cl\u00ednica"},{"key":"63636_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.3389\/fchem.2020.00286","volume":"8","author":"Y-C Yeh","year":"2020","unstructured":"Yeh, Y.-C., Huang, T.-H., Yang, S.-C., Chen, C.-C. & Fang, J.-Y. Nano-based drug delivery or targeting to eradicate bacteria for infection mitigation: A review of recent advances. Front. Chem. 8, 286 (2020).","journal-title":"Front. Chem."},{"key":"63636_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.3390\/nano10010140","volume":"10","author":"F Carrouel","year":"2020","unstructured":"Carrouel, F., Viennot, S., Ottolenghi, L., Gaillard, C. & Bourgeois, D. Nanoparticles as anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, and remineralizing agents in oral care cosmetics: A review of the current situation. Nanomaterials 10, 140 (2020).","journal-title":"Nanomaterials"},{"key":"63636_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1021\/bm034130m","volume":"4","author":"EI Rabea","year":"2003","unstructured":"Rabea, E. I., Badawy, M.E.-T., Stevens, C. V., Smagghe, G. & Steurbaut, W. Chitosan as antimicrobial agent: applications and mode of action. Biomacromolecules 4, 1457\u20131465 (2003).","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"63636_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archoralbio.2017.09.029","volume":"85","author":"IM de Carvalho Baptista","year":"2018","unstructured":"de Carvalho Baptista, I. M. et al. Colonization of oropharynx and lower respiratory tract in critical patients: risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Arch. Oral Biol. 85, 64\u201369 (2018).","journal-title":"Arch. Oral Biol."},{"key":"63636_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1992","DOI":"10.1080\/13880209.2017.1347188","volume":"55","author":"C Cruz Mart\u00ednez","year":"2017","unstructured":"Cruz Mart\u00ednez, C., Diaz G\u00f3mez, M. & Oh, M. S. Use of traditional herbal medicine as an alternative in dental treatment in Mexican dentistry: A review. Pharm. Biol. 55, 1992\u20131998 (2017).","journal-title":"Pharm. Biol."},{"key":"63636_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sdentj.2016.11.001","volume":"29","author":"H Balto","year":"2017","unstructured":"Balto, H., Al-Sanie, I., Al-Beshri, S. & Aldrees, A. Effectiveness of Salvadora persica extracts against common oral pathogens. Saudi Dent. J. 29, 1\u20136 (2017).","journal-title":"Saudi Dent. J."},{"key":"63636_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4725","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.181.16.4725-4733.1999","volume":"181","author":"TJ Beveridge","year":"1999","unstructured":"Beveridge, T. J. Structures of gram-negative cell walls and their derived membrane vesicles. J. Bacteriol. 181, 4725\u20134733 (1999).","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"63636_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.3390\/ma10060602","volume":"10","author":"S Husain","year":"2017","unstructured":"Husain, S. et al. Chitosan biomaterials for current and potential dental applications. Materials 10, 602 (2017).","journal-title":"Materials"},{"key":"63636_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10030318","volume":"10","author":"Y Yan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yan, Y. et al. Research progress on antimicrobial activities and mechanisms of natural alkaloids: A review. Antibiotics 10, 318 (2021).","journal-title":"Antibiotics"},{"key":"63636_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1007\/s11947-008-0095-5","volume":"2","author":"LU Opara","year":"2009","unstructured":"Opara, L. U., Al-Ani, M. R. & Al-Shuaibi, Y. S. Physico-chemical properties, vitamin C content, and antimicrobial properties of pomegranate fruit (Punica granatum L.). Food Bioprocess. Technol. 2, 315\u2013321 (2009).","journal-title":"Food Bioprocess. Technol."},{"key":"63636_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2015.06.021","volume":"77","author":"A Ahmad","year":"2015","unstructured":"Ahmad, A., Kaleem, M., Ahmed, Z. & Shafiq, H. Therapeutic potential of flavonoids and their mechanism of action against microbial and viral infections\u2014A review. Food Res. Int. 77, 221\u2013235 (2015).","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"63636_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5062","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01050-10","volume":"54","author":"A Rao","year":"2010","unstructured":"Rao, A., Zhang, Y., Muend, S. & Rao, R. Mechanism of antifungal activity of terpenoid phenols resembles calcium stress and inhibition of the TOR pathway. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 54, 5062\u20135069 (2010).","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"63636_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotobiol.2004.09.009","volume":"78","author":"SCN Montoya","year":"2005","unstructured":"Montoya, S. C. N. et al. Natural anthraquinones probed as Type I and Type II photosensitizers: Singlet oxygen and superoxide anion production. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 78, 77\u201383 (2005).","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B"},{"key":"63636_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2020.117108","volume":"251","author":"S Rashki","year":"2021","unstructured":"Rashki, S. et al. Chitosan-based nanoparticles against bacterial infections. Carbohydr. Polym. 251, 117108 (2021).","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"63636_CR32","first-page":"8","volume":"5","author":"TC Venkateswarulu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Venkateswarulu, T. C. et al. Estimation of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of antimicrobial peptides of Saccharomyces boulardii against selected pathogenic strains. Karbala Int. J. Mod. Sci. 5, 8 (2019).","journal-title":"Karbala Int. J. Mod. Sci."},{"key":"63636_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1007\/s12088-016-0609-1","volume":"56","author":"I Faridha Begum","year":"2016","unstructured":"Faridha Begum, I., Mohankumar, R., Jeevan, M. & Ramani, K. GC\u2013MS analysis of bio-active molecules derived from Paracoccus pantotrophus FMR19 and the antimicrobial activity against bacterial pathogens and MDROs. Indian J. Microbiol. 56, 426\u2013432 (2016).","journal-title":"Indian J. Microbiol."},{"key":"63636_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.3390\/horticulturae8100945","volume":"8","author":"OT Adu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Adu, O. T. et al. Phytochemical screening and biological activities of Diospyros villosa (L.) De Winter Leaf and stem-bark extracts. Horticulturae 8, 945 (2022).","journal-title":"Horticulturae"},{"key":"63636_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1236","DOI":"10.1016\/S1671-2927(09)60212-1","volume":"9","author":"Z Pu","year":"2010","unstructured":"Pu, Z. et al. Antimicrobial activity of 9-Octadecanoic Acid-hexadecanoic acid-tetrahydrofuran-3,4-diyl ester from neem oil. Agric. Sci. China 9, 1236\u20131240 (2010).","journal-title":"Agric. Sci. China"},{"issue":"2","key":"63636_CR36","first-page":"169","volume":"56","author":"RS Bhat","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bhat, R. S. et al. Trigonella foenum-graecum L. seed germination under sodium halide salts exposure. Fluoride 56(2), 169\u2013179 (2023).","journal-title":"Fluoride"},{"issue":"1","key":"63636_CR37","first-page":"81","volume":"55","author":"RS Bhat","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bhat, R. S. et al. Biochemical and FT-IR profiling of Tritium aestivum L. seedling in response to sodium fluoride treatment. Fluoride 55(1), 81\u201389 (2022).","journal-title":"Fluoride"}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-024-63636-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-024-63636-1","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-024-63636-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]],"date-time":"2024-06-06T04:08:35Z","timestamp":1717646915000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-024-63636-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["63636"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-024-63636-1","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"24 October 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"30 May 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 June 2024","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"12997"}}