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Utilizing the results of the trained deep learning models, it aimed to evaluate the feasibility of employing major changes visible in skull X-ray images for assessing postnatal cranial development through gradient-weighted class activation mapping. We developed DenseNet-121 and EfficientNet-v2-M convolutional neural network models to analyze 4933 skull X-ray images collected from 1343 infants. Notably, allowing for a \u00b1\u20091\u00a0month error margin, DenseNet-121 reached a maximum corrected accuracy of 79.4% for anteroposterior (AP) views (average: 78.0\u2009\u00b1\u20091.5%) and 84.2% for lateral views (average: 81.1\u2009\u00b1\u20092.9%). EfficientNet-v2-M reached a maximum corrected accuracy 79.1% for AP views (average: 77.0\u2009\u00b1\u20092.3%) and 87.3% for lateral views (average: 85.1\u2009\u00b1\u20092.5%). Saliency maps identified critical discriminative areas in skull radiographs, including the coronal, sagittal, and metopic sutures in AP skull X-ray images, and the lambdoid suture and cortical bone density in lateral images, marking them as indicators for evaluating cranial development. These findings highlight the precision of deep learning in estimating infant age through non-invasive methods, offering the progress for clinical diagnostics and developmental assessment tools.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-64489-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,18]],"date-time":"2024-07-18T08:02:04Z","timestamp":1721289724000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Estimating infant age from skull X-ray images using deep learning"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Heui Seung","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jaewoong","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"So Eui","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ji Hee","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bum-Joo","family":"Cho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,18]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"64489_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/S0033-8389(22)01950-9","volume":"10","author":"LE Swischuk","year":"1972","unstructured":"Swischuk, L. 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