{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T03:09:49Z","timestamp":1793675389744,"version":"4.5.1"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,11]],"date-time":"2025-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1739232000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,11]],"date-time":"2025-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1739232000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Geographic Pristine Seas","award":["SB170043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SB170043"]}]},{"name":"National Geographic Pristine Seas","award":["SB170043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SB170043"]}]},{"name":"National Geographic Pristine Seas","award":["SB170043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SB170043"]}]},{"name":"National Geographic Pristine Seas","award":["SB170043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SB170043"]}]},{"name":"National Geographic Pristine Seas","award":["SB170043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SB170043"]}]},{"name":"National Geographic Pristine Seas","award":["SB170043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SB170043"]}]},{"name":"National Geographic Pristine Seas","award":["SB170043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SB170043"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100023581","name":"National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2139319"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2139319"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100023581","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>Marine and coastal tourism deliver economic benefits to coastal communities that far surpass those generated by fisheries, yet its potential contribution to global marine conservation remains underexamined. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) help restore biodiversity and enhance nearby fisheries, but their direct tourism benefits are not well understood. Here, we estimate the global demand for recreational scuba dive tourism, map the distribution and protection status of all marine dive sites globally, and develop a bioeconomic model to estimate the revenue gains from upgrading unprotected dive sites to fully protected MPAs. We estimate that 33.1\u00a0million scuba dives occur annually in marine environments worldwide, with 70% taking place within MPAs. However, only 15% of these MPA-affiliated dive sites are highly or fully protected. We show that designating all unprotected recreational dive sites, representing less than 1% of the global ocean, as highly or fully protected MPAs would improve fish biomass and biodiversity while generating an additional US$2\u00a0billion per year in direct tourism revenue (not including economic multipliers). Importantly, 62% of marine diving currently occurs in developing countries, underscoring the potential for dive tourism to support both marine conservation and local livelihoods in regions where such benefits are most needed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-83664-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,11]],"date-time":"2025-02-11T10:02:59Z","timestamp":1739268179000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Marine protected areas for dive tourism"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Reniel B.","family":"Cabral","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katherine D.","family":"Millage","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan","family":"Mayorga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tia","family":"Kordell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mukta","family":"Kelkar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alicia M.","family":"Caughman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabio","family":"Favoretto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Schuhbauer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Octavio","family":"Aburto-Oropeza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Enric","family":"Sala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Darcy","family":"Bradley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"83664_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eabf0861","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abf0861","volume":"373","author":"K Grorud-Colvert","year":"2021","unstructured":"Grorud-Colvert, K. et al. The MPA guide: A framework to achieve global goals for the ocean. Science 373, eabf0861 (2021).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"83664_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1093\/icesjms\/fsx059","volume":"75","author":"E Sala","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sala, E. & Giakoumi, S. No-take marine reserves are the most effective protected areas in the ocean. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 75, 1166\u20131168 (2018).","journal-title":"ICES J. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"83664_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13022","volume":"506","author":"GJ Edgar","year":"2014","unstructured":"Edgar, G. J. et al. Global conservation outcomes depend on marine protected areas with five key features. Nature 506, 216\u2013220 (2014).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"83664_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.3354\/meps08029","volume":"384","author":"SE Lester","year":"2009","unstructured":"Lester, S. E. et al. Biological effects within no-take marine reserves: A global synthesis. Mar. Ecol. Prog Ser. 384, 33\u201346 (2009).","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog Ser."},{"key":"83664_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1017\/S0376892900000436","volume":"27","author":"ID Williams","year":"2000","unstructured":"Williams, I. D. & Polunin, N. V. C. Differences between protected and unprotected reefs of the western Caribbean in attributes preferred by dive tourists. Environ. Conserv. 27, 382\u2013391 (2000).","journal-title":"Environ. Conserv."},{"key":"83664_CR6","unstructured":"PADI. 2021 Worldwide Corporate Statistics: Data for 2015\u20132020 (2021)."},{"key":"83664_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolecon.2016.05.005","volume":"128","author":"S Grafeld","year":"2016","unstructured":"Grafeld, S. et al. Divers\u2019 willingness to pay for improved coral reef conditions in Guam: An untapped source of funding for management and conservation? Ecol. Econ. 128, 202\u2013213 (2016).","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."},{"key":"83664_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolecon.2015.01.004","volume":"111","author":"DA Gill","year":"2015","unstructured":"Gill, D. A., Schuhmann, P. W. & Oxenford, H. A. Recreational diver preferences for reef fish attributes: Economic implications of future change. Ecol. Econ. 111, 48\u201357 (2015).","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."},{"key":"83664_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2017.01.072","volume":"192","author":"M Cazabon-Mannette","year":"2017","unstructured":"Cazabon-Mannette, M., Schuhmann, P. W., Hailey, A. & Horrocks, J. Estimates of the non-market value of sea turtles in Tobago using stated preference techniques. J. Environ. Manag. 192, 281\u2013291 (2017).","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"83664_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1111\/cobi.13677","volume":"35","author":"JW Turnbull","year":"2021","unstructured":"Turnbull, J. W., Johnston, E. L. & Clark, G. F. Evaluating the social and ecological effectiveness of partially protected marine areas. Conserv. Biol. 35, 921\u2013932 (2021).","journal-title":"Conserv. Biol."},{"key":"83664_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/2047-2382-2-4","volume":"2","author":"M Sciberras","year":"2013","unstructured":"Sciberras, M., Jenkins, S. R., Kaiser, M. J., Hawkins, S. J. & Pullin, A. S. Evaluating the biological effectiveness of fully and partially protected marine areas. Environ. Evid. 2, 4 (2013).","journal-title":"Environ. Evid."},{"key":"83664_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e58799","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0058799","volume":"8","author":"E Sala","year":"2013","unstructured":"Sala, E. et al. A general business model for marine reserves. PLoS ONE 8, e58799 (2013).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"83664_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0190187","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0190187","volume":"12","author":"DF Viana","year":"2017","unstructured":"Viana, D. F., Halpern, B. S. & Gaines, S. D. Accounting for tourism benefits in marine reserve design. PLoS ONE 12, e0190187 (2017).","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"83664_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03371-z","volume":"592","author":"E Sala","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sala, E. et al. Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate. Nature 592, 397\u2013402 (2021).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"83664_CR15","unstructured":"Marine Conservation Institute. Atlas of Marine Protection (2020); http:\/\/mpatlas.org."},{"key":"83664_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-024-03728-9","volume":"11","author":"D Bradley","year":"2024","unstructured":"Bradley, D. et al. Marine Fish Movement: Home range sizes for commercially relevant species. Sci. Data 11, 865 (2024).","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"83664_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1038\/s41559-018-0499-1","volume":"2","author":"RB Cabral","year":"2018","unstructured":"Cabral, R. B. et al. Rapid and lasting gains from solving illegal fishing. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2, 650\u2013658 (2018).","journal-title":"Nat. Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"83664_CR18","unstructured":"Kaschner, K. et al. AquaMaps: Predicted range maps for aquatic species. World wide web electronic publication, Version 08\/2016c (2016). www.aquamaps.org."},{"key":"83664_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2004.03.021","volume":"120","author":"NHL Barker","year":"2004","unstructured":"Barker, N. H. L. & Roberts, C. M. Scuba diver behaviour and the management of diving impacts on coral reefs. Biol. Conserv. 120, 481\u2013489 (2004).","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"83664_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2008.06.002","volume":"56","author":"H Hasler","year":"2008","unstructured":"Hasler, H. & Ott, J. A. Diving down the reefs? Intensive diving tourism threatens the reefs of the northern Red Sea. Mar. Pollut Bull. 56, 1788\u20131794 (2008).","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut Bull."},{"key":"83664_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3207(92)91045-T","volume":"62","author":"JP Hawkins","year":"1992","unstructured":"Hawkins, J. P. & Roberts, C. M. Effects of recreational SCUBA diving on fore-reef slope communities of coral reefs. Biol. Conserv. 62, 171\u2013178 (1992).","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"83664_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9694","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0403239101","volume":"101","author":"A Balmford","year":"2004","unstructured":"Balmford, A., Gravestock, P., Hockley, N., McClean, C. J. & Roberts, C. M. The worldwide costs of marine protected areas. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 101, 9694\u20139697 (2004).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"83664_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1080\/08920751003633086","volume":"38","author":"S Cullis-Suzuki","year":"2010","unstructured":"Cullis-Suzuki, S. & Pauly, D. Marine protected area costs as beneficial fisheries subsidies: A global evaluation. Coast Manag. 38, 113\u2013121 (2010).","journal-title":"Coast Manag"},{"key":"83664_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1787\/9789264251724-en","volume-title":"The Ocean Economy in 2030","author":"OECD","year":"2016","unstructured":"OECD. The Ocean Economy in 2030 (OECD Publishing, 2016)."},{"key":"83664_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpol.2017.05.014","volume":"82","author":"M Spalding","year":"2017","unstructured":"Spalding, M. et al. Mapping the global value and distribution of coral reef tourism. Mar. Policy 82, 104\u2013113 (2017).","journal-title":"Mar. Policy"},{"key":"83664_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1007\/s11852-016-0484-2","volume":"21","author":"L Gier","year":"2017","unstructured":"Gier, L., Christie, P. & Amolo, R. Community perceptions of scuba dive tourism development in Bien Unido, Bohol Island, Philippines. J. Coast Conserv. 21, 153\u2013166 (2017).","journal-title":"J. Coast Conserv."},{"key":"83664_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpol.2014.02.017","volume":"47","author":"S Pascoe","year":"2014","unstructured":"Pascoe, S. et al. Estimating the potential impact of entry fees for marine parks on dive tourism in South East Asia. Mar. Policy 47, 147\u2013152 (2014).","journal-title":"Mar. Policy"},{"key":"83664_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1002\/jtr.1897","volume":"15","author":"B Daldeniz","year":"2013","unstructured":"Daldeniz, B. & Hampton, M. P. Dive tourism and local communities: Active participation or subject to impacts? Case studies from Malaysia. Int. J. Tour Res. 15, 507\u2013520 (2013).","journal-title":"Int. J. Tour Res."},{"key":"83664_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jort.2020.100328","volume":"31","author":"A Gerungan","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gerungan, A. & Chia, K. W. Scuba diving operators\u2019 perspective of scuba diving tourism business in Nusa Penida, Indonesia. J. Outdoor. Recreat Tour. 31, 100328 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Outdoor Recreat. Tour."},{"key":"83664_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpol.2016.07.032","volume":"73","author":"E Sala","year":"2016","unstructured":"Sala, E. et al. Fish banks: An economic model to scale marine conservation. Mar. Policy 73, 154\u2013161 (2016).","journal-title":"Mar. Policy"},{"key":"83664_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2014.11.024","volume":"182","author":"FA Januchowski-Hartley","year":"2015","unstructured":"Januchowski-Hartley, F. A., Graham, N. A. J., Cinner, J. E. & Russ, G. R. Local fishing influences coral reef fish behavior inside protected areas of the Indo-Pacific. Biol. Conserv. 182, 8\u201312 (2015).","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"83664_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1461-0248.2002.00326.x","volume":"5","author":"BS Halpern","year":"2002","unstructured":"Halpern, B. S. & Warner, R. R. Marine reserves have rapid and lasting effects. Ecol. Lett. 5, 361\u2013366 (2002).","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett."},{"key":"83664_CR33","unstructured":"Convention on Biological Diversity. First draft of the post-2020 global biodiversity framework (2021)."},{"key":"83664_CR34","volume-title":"FishBase","author":"D Pauly","year":"2022","unstructured":"Pauly, D. & Froese, R. FishBase (World Wide Web Electronic Publication, 2022)."},{"key":"83664_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.3354\/meps260083","volume":"260","author":"DA Siegel","year":"2003","unstructured":"Siegel, D. A., Kinlan, B. P., Gaylord, B. & Gaines, S. D. Lagrangian descriptions of marine larval dispersion. Mar. Ecol. Prog Ser. 260, 83\u201396 (2003).","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog Ser."},{"key":"83664_CR36","unstructured":"FAO. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2018 - Meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (Rome, 2018)."},{"key":"83664_CR37","unstructured":"RAM Legacy Stock Assessment Database. Version 4.44-assessment-only. Released 2018-12-22 (2018)."},{"key":"83664_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Schuhbauer, A. et al. Global economic impact of scuba dive tourism (2023); https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21203\/rs.3.rs-2609621\/v1.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-2609621\/v1"},{"key":"83664_CR39","unstructured":"DEMA. 2022 Diving Fast Facts: Fast Facts on Recreational Scuba Diving and Snorkeling. 8 (2022)."},{"key":"83664_CR40","unstructured":"Kieran, D. The Size of The Scuba Diving Industry. Medium (2019). https:\/\/medium.com\/scubanomics\/the-size-of-the-scuba-diving-industry-573b8ac44c7c."},{"key":"83664_CR41","volume-title":"New Frontiers in Marine Tourism: Diving Experiences,\u00a0Management and Sustainability","author":"B Garrod","year":"2008","unstructured":"Garrod, B. & G\u00f6ssling, S. New Frontiers in Marine Tourism: Diving Experiences,\u00a0Management and Sustainability (Elsevier, 2008)."},{"key":"83664_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1002\/aqc.2663","volume":"27","author":"C Cerrano","year":"2017","unstructured":"Cerrano, C., Milanese, M. & Ponti, M. Diving for science - science for diving: Volunteer scuba divers support science and conservation in the Mediterranean Sea. Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 27, 303\u2013323 (2017).","journal-title":"Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst."},{"key":"83664_CR43","unstructured":"SFIA. 2021 Fitness, and Leisure Activities Topline Participation Report (2021)."},{"key":"83664_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Cabral, R. B., Millage, K. D. & Mayorga, J. emlab-ucsb\/ps-tourism. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/zenodo.8034977. (2023).","DOI":"10.5281\/zenodo.8034977"},{"key":"83664_CR45","unstructured":"South, A. rnaturalearth: World map data from natural earth. The R Foundation (2017); https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/rnaturalearthdata\/index.html."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-024-83664-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-024-83664-1","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-024-83664-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,11]],"date-time":"2025-02-11T10:03:12Z","timestamp":1739268192000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-024-83664-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,11]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["83664"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-024-83664-1","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"3 August 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 December 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 February 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"1923"}}