{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T18:31:57Z","timestamp":1791225117660,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]],"date-time":"2025-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736899200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]],"date-time":"2025-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736899200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100013864","name":"NOAA Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Sea Grant #R-18-05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Sea Grant #R-18-05"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100013864","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["OCE-MGG #1459827"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OCE-MGG #1459827"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["OCE-MGG #2028219"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OCE-MGG #2028219"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["OCE-MGG #2028212"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OCE-MGG #2028212"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["OCE-MGG #2028197"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OCE-MGG #2028197"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    The Gulf of Maine holds significant ecological and economic value for fisheries and communities in north-eastern North America. However, there is apprehension regarding its vulnerability to the effects of increasing atmospheric CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    . Substantial recent warming and the inflow of low alkalinity waters into the Gulf of Maine have raised concerns about the impact of ocean acidification on resident marine calcifiers (e.g. oysters, clams, mussels). With limited seawater pH records, the natural variability and drivers of pH in this region remain unclear. To address this, we present coastal water pH proxy records using boron isotope (\u03b4\n                    <jats:sup>11<\/jats:sup>\n                    B) measurements in long-lived, annually banded, crustose coralline algae (1920\u20132018 CE). These records indicate seawater pH was low (~\u20097.9) for much of the last century. Contrary to expectation, we also find that pH has increased (+\u20090.2 pH units) over the past 40 years, despite concurrent rising atmospheric CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    . This increase is attributed to an increased input of high alkalinity waters derived from the Gulf Stream. This delayed onset of ocean acidification is cause for concern. Once ocean circulation-driven buffering effects reach their limit, seawater pH decline may occur swiftly. This would profoundly harm shellfisheries and the broader Gulf of Maine ecosystem.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-84537-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]],"date-time":"2025-01-15T05:23:37Z","timestamp":1736918617000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Delayed onset of ocean acidification in the Gulf of Maine"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Joseph A.","family":"Stewart","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Branwen","family":"Williams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mich\u00e8le","family":"LaVigne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alan D.","family":"Wanamaker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aaron L.","family":"Strong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brittany","family":"Jellison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nina M.","family":"Whitney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Diana L.","family":"Thatcher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura F.","family":"Robinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jochen","family":"Halfar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Walter","family":"Adey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"84537_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate2508","volume":"5","author":"JA Ekstrom","year":"2015","unstructured":"Ekstrom, J. A. et al. Vulnerability and adaptation of US shellfisheries to ocean acidification. Nat. Clim. Change 5, 207\u2013214 (2015).","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Change"},{"key":"84537_CR2","unstructured":"Bentley, C. & Schneider, D. Report of the Commission to Study the Effects of Coastal and Ocean Acidification and its Existingand Potential Effects on Species that are Commercially Harvested and Grown along the Maine Coast. (Maine Office of Policy and Legal Analysis, 2015)."},{"key":"84537_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1080\/08920753.2021.1947126","volume":"49","author":"J Turner","year":"2021","unstructured":"Turner, J. et al. Opportunities for U.S. State governments and in-Region partners to address Ocean Acidification through Management and Policy frameworks. Coastal. Manage. 49, 436\u2013457 (2021).","journal-title":"Coastal. Manage."},{"key":"84537_CR4","unstructured":"Olsen, A. et al. GLODAPv2.2020 \u2013 the second update of GLODAPv2. Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss. 1\u201341. (2020)."},{"key":"84537_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1357\/002224015815848811","volume":"73","author":"DW Townsend","year":"2015","unstructured":"Townsend, D. W. et al. Water masses and nutrient sources to the Gulf of Maine. J. Mar. Res. 73, 93\u2013122 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Mar. Res."},{"key":"84537_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Townsend, D. W., Pettigrew, N. R., Thomas, M. A. & Moore, S. Warming waters of the Gulf of Maine: the role of Shelf, Slope and Gulf Stream Water masses. Prog. Oceanogr. 215, 103030, (2023).","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pocean.2023.103030"},{"key":"84537_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4127","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-15-4127-2023","volume":"15","author":"O Gibb","year":"2023","unstructured":"Gibb, O. et al. Spatiotemporal variability in pH and carbonate parameters on the Canadian Atlantic continental shelf between 2014 and 2022. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 15, 4127\u20134162 (2023).","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"84537_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2012.07.008","volume":"47","author":"DG Mountain","year":"2012","unstructured":"Mountain, D. G. Labrador slope water entering the Gulf of Maine\u2014response to the North Atlantic Oscillation. Cont. Shelf Res. 47, 150\u2013155 (2012).","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"84537_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aac9819","volume":"350","author":"AJ Pershing","year":"2015","unstructured":"Pershing, A. J. et al. Slow adaptation in the face of rapid warming leads to collapse of the Gulf of Maine Cod fishery. Science 350, 809 (2015).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"84537_CR10","unstructured":"DeVoe, W. MaineDMR Boothbay Harbor Sea Surface Temperatures. https:\/\/dmr-maine.opendata.arcgis.com\/ (2023)."},{"key":"84537_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1038\/s43247-022-00504-8","volume":"3","author":"NM Whitney","year":"2022","unstructured":"Whitney, N. M. et al. Rapid 20th century warming reverses 900-year cooling in the Gulf of Maine. Commun. Earth Environ. 3, 179 (2022).","journal-title":"Commun. Earth Environ."},{"key":"84537_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-007-0344-8","volume":"31","author":"AD Wanamaker","year":"2008","unstructured":"Wanamaker, A. D. et al. Coupled North Atlantic slope water forcing on Gulf of Maine temperatures over the past millennium. Clim. Dyn. 31, 183\u2013194 (2008).","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"84537_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.10326","volume":"61","author":"MP Lesser","year":"2016","unstructured":"Lesser, M. P. Climate change stressors cause metabolic depression in the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis, from the Gulf of Maine. Limnol. Oceanogr. 61, 1705\u20131717 (2016).","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"84537_CR14","unstructured":"Masson-Delmotte, V. et al. IPCC, : Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2021). (2021)."},{"key":"84537_CR15","unstructured":"Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study (BATS). Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences. https:\/\/bats.bios.asu.edu\/data\/."},{"key":"84537_CR16","unstructured":"Hawaii Ocean Time-series (HOT). University of Hawai\u2019i at Manoa. https:\/\/hahana.soest.hawaii.edu\/hot\/."},{"key":"84537_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.marine.010908.163834","volume":"1","author":"SC Doney","year":"2009","unstructured":"Doney, S. C., Fabry, V. J., Feely, R. A. & Kleypas, J. A. Ocean Acidification: the other CO2 problem. Annual Rev. Mar. Sci. 1, 169\u2013192 (2009).","journal-title":"Annual Rev. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"84537_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2023.110394","volume":"289","author":"E Tr\u00e9garot","year":"2024","unstructured":"Tr\u00e9garot, E. et al. Effects of climate change on marine coastal ecosystems \u2013 A review to guide research and management. Biol. Conserv. 289, 110394 (2024).","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"84537_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1007\/s12237-013-9594-3","volume":"36","author":"CM Duarte","year":"2013","unstructured":"Duarte, C. M. et al. Is Ocean Acidification an Open-Ocean Syndrome? Understanding anthropogenic impacts on seawater pH. Estuaries Coasts 36, 221\u2013236 (2013).","journal-title":"Estuaries Coasts"},{"key":"84537_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1029\/2008EO500001","volume":"89","author":"J Salisbury","year":"2008","unstructured":"Salisbury, J., Green, M., Hunt, C. & Campbell, J. Coastal Acidification by Rivers:a threat to Shellfish? Eos Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 89, 513\u2013513 (2008).","journal-title":"Eos Trans. Am. Geophys. Union"},{"key":"84537_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2015.41","volume":"28","author":"DK Gledhill","year":"2015","unstructured":"Gledhill, D. K. et al. Ocean and Coastal Acidification off New England and Nova Scotia. Oceanography 28, 182\u2013197 (2015).","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"84537_CR22","first-page":"00062","volume":"9","author":"SA Siedlecki","year":"2021","unstructured":"Siedlecki, S. A. et al. Projecting ocean acidification impacts for the Gulf of Maine to 2050: New tools and expectations. Elementa: Sci. Anthropocene 9, 00062 (2021).","journal-title":"Elementa: Sci. Anthropocene"},{"key":"84537_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-marine-121211-172238","volume":"6","author":"GG Waldbusser","year":"2014","unstructured":"Waldbusser, G. G. & Salisbury, J. E. Ocean Acidification in the Coastal Zone from an organism\u2019s perspective: multiple system parameters, frequency domains, and habitats. Annual Rev. Mar. Sci. 6, 221\u2013247 (2014).","journal-title":"Annual Rev. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"84537_CR24","unstructured":"Friends of Casco Bay. Friends of Casco Bay Water Quality Monitoring Program. www.cascobay.org. (2020)."},{"key":"84537_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1007\/s10533-018-0505-3","volume":"141","author":"JE Salisbury","year":"2018","unstructured":"Salisbury, J. E. & J\u00f6nsson, B. F. Rapid warming and salinity changes in the Gulf of Maine alter surface ocean carbonate parameters and hide ocean acidification. Biogeochemistry 141, 401\u2013418 (2018).","journal-title":"Biogeochemistry"},{"key":"84537_CR26","unstructured":"Sutton, A. J. et al. High-resolution ocean and atmosphere pCO2 time-series measurements from mooring NH_70W_43N n the North Atlantic Ocean. (NCEI Accession 0115402, 2015)."},{"key":"84537_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gca.2019.03.019","volume":"254","author":"NM Whitney","year":"2019","unstructured":"Whitney, N. M., Johnson, B. J., Dostie, P. T., Luzier, K. & Wanamaker, A. D. Paired bulk organic and individual amino acid \u03b415N analyses of bivalve shell periostracum: a paleoceanographic proxy for water source variability and nitrogen cycling processes. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 254, 67\u201385 (2019).","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"84537_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Balch, W. M. et al. Changing Hydrographic, Biogeochemical, and Acidification properties in the Gulf of Maine as measured by the Gulf of Maine North Atlantic Time Series, GNATS, between 1998 and 2018. J. Geophys. Research: Biogeosciences 127, e2022JG006790, (2022).","DOI":"10.1029\/2022JG006790"},{"key":"84537_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr2.2012.04.001","volume":"77\u201380","author":"PS Galbraith","year":"2012","unstructured":"Galbraith, P. S., Larouche, P., Chass\u00e9, J. & Petrie, B. Sea-surface temperature in relation to air temperature in the Gulf of St. Lawrence: interdecadal variability and long term trends. Deep Sea Res. Part II 77\u201380, 10\u201320 (2012).","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. Part II"},{"key":"84537_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jutras, M., Dufour, C. O., Mucci, A., Cyr, F. & Gilbert, D. Temporal changes in the causes of the observed oxygen decline in the St. Lawrence Estuary. J. Geophys. Research: Oceans 125, e2020JC016577, (2020).","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JC016577"},{"key":"84537_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1004904108","volume":"108","author":"OA Sherwood","year":"2011","unstructured":"Sherwood, O. A., Lehmann, M. F., Schubert, C. J., Scott, D. B. & McCarthy, M. D. Nutrient regime shift in the western North Atlantic indicated by compound-specific \u03b415N of deep-sea gorgonian corals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 108, 1011\u20131015 (2011).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"84537_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5153","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-11-00463.1","volume":"25","author":"G Danabasoglu","year":"2012","unstructured":"Danabasoglu, G. et al. Variability of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation in CCSM4. J. Clim. 25, 5153\u20135172 (2012).","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"84537_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau6592","volume":"363","author":"MS Lozier","year":"2019","unstructured":"Lozier, M. S. et al. A sea change in our view of overturning in the subpolar North Atlantic. Science 363, 516 (2019).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"84537_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1038\/s41561-021-00699-z","volume":"14","author":"L Caesar","year":"2021","unstructured":"Caesar, L., McCarthy, G. D., Thornalley, D. J. R., Cahill, N. & Rahmstorf, S. Current Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation weakest in last millennium. Nat. Geosci. 14, 118\u2013120 (2021).","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"84537_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1038\/s41561-022-00896-4","volume":"15","author":"KH Kilbourne","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kilbourne, K. H. et al. Atlantic circulation change still uncertain. Nat. Geosci. 15, 165\u2013167 (2022).","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"84537_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GB004813","volume":"28","author":"DC Jones","year":"2014","unstructured":"Jones, D. C., Ito, T., Takano, Y. & Hsu, W. C. Spatial and seasonal variability of the air-sea equilibration timescale of carbon dioxide. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 28, 1163\u20131178 (2014).","journal-title":"Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"84537_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e6735","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.6735","volume":"7","author":"NR Record","year":"2019","unstructured":"Record, N. R., Balch, W. M. & Stamieszkin, K. Century-scale changes in phytoplankton phenology in the Gulf of Maine. PeerJ 7, e6735 (2019).","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"84537_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-4343(03)00086-4","volume":"23","author":"AC Thomas","year":"2003","unstructured":"Thomas, A. C., Townsend, D. W. & Weatherbee, R. Satellite-measured phytoplankton variability in the Gulf of Maine. Cont. Shelf Res. 23, 971\u2013989 (2003).","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"84537_CR39","unstructured":"Sathyendranath, S. et al. ESA Ocean Colour Climate Change Initiative (Ocean_Colour_cci): Global chlorophyll-a data products gridded on a sinusoidal projection, Version 4.2. Centre for Environmental Data Analysis. https:\/\/catalogue.ceda.ac.uk\/uuid\/99348189bd33459cbd597a58c30d8d10 (2020)."},{"key":"84537_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2700","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JG003314","volume":"121","author":"TG Huntington","year":"2016","unstructured":"Huntington, T. G. et al. Climate change and dissolved organic carbon export to the Gulf of Maine. J. Geophys. Research: Biogeosciences 121, 2700\u20132716 (2016).","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Research: Biogeosciences"},{"key":"84537_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adey, W. H., Suskiewicz, T. S. & Rasher, D. B. Marine Ecosystem Analysis of Gouldsboro and Dyer Bays, Maine. (2020).","DOI":"10.5479\/si.11950329"},{"key":"84537_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jembe.2023.151869","volume":"561","author":"EM Johnston","year":"2023","unstructured":"Johnston, E. M. et al. Bed-scale impact and recovery of a commercially important intertidal seaweed. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 561, 151869 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol."},{"key":"84537_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2008.12.021","volume":"82","author":"J Salisbury","year":"2009","unstructured":"Salisbury, J. et al. Episodic riverine influence on surface DIC in the coastal Gulf of Maine. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 82, 108\u2013118 (2009).","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"84537_CR44","unstructured":"NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. Climate at a Glance: Statewide Time Series. https:\/\/www.ncei.noaa.gov\/access\/monitoring\/climate-at-a-glance\/statewide\/time-series (2023)."},{"key":"84537_CR45","unstructured":"U.S. Geological Survey. Surface Water data for USA: USGS Surface-Water Monthly Statistics. https:\/\/waterdata.usgs.gov\/nwis\/monthly? (2023)."},{"key":"84537_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-13-018.1","volume":"15","author":"TG Huntington","year":"2014","unstructured":"Huntington, T. G. & Billmire, M. Trends in Precipitation, Runoff, and Evapotranspiration for Rivers draining to the Gulf of Maine in the United States. J. Hydrometeorol. 15, 726\u2013743 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"84537_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1111\/jpy.12266","volume":"51","author":"WH Adey","year":"2015","unstructured":"Adey, W. H., Hernandez-Kantun, J. J., Johnson, G. & Gabrielson, P. W. DNA sequencing, anatomy, and calcification patterns support a monophyletic, subarctic, carbonate reef-forming Clathromorphum (Hapalidiaceae, Corallinales, Rhodophyta). J. Phycol. 51, 189\u2013203 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Phycol."},{"key":"84537_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.2960\/J.v43.m663","volume":"43","author":"KF Drinkwater","year":"2011","unstructured":"Drinkwater, K. F. & Petrie, B. A. Note on the Long-Term Sea Surface Temperature records at Boothbay Harbor, Maine. J. Northwest. Atl. Fish. Sci. 43, 93\u2013101 (2011).","journal-title":"J. Northwest. Atl. Fish. Sci."},{"key":"84537_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Heuven, S., Pierrot, D., Rae, J., Lewis, E. & Wallace, D. CO2SYS v 1.1, MATLAB program developed for CO2 system calculations. ORNL\/CDIAC-105b. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory (2011).","DOI":"10.3334\/CDIAC\/otg.CO2SYS_MATLAB_v1.1"},{"key":"84537_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4245","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.13673","volume":"23","author":"CE Cornwall","year":"2017","unstructured":"Cornwall, C. E., Comeau, S. & McCulloch, M. T. Coralline algae elevate pH at the site of calcification under ocean acidification. Glob. Change Biol. 23, 4245\u20134256 (2017).","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"84537_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gca.2017.08.021","volume":"217","author":"HK Donald","year":"2017","unstructured":"Donald, H. K., Ries, J. B., Stewart, J. A., Fowell, S. E. & Foster, G. L. Boron isotope sensitivity to seawater pH change in a species of Neogoniolithon coralline red alga. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 217, 240\u2013253 (2017).","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"84537_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.palaeo.2010.06.004","volume":"302","author":"S Hetzinger","year":"2011","unstructured":"Hetzinger, S. et al. High-resolution analysis of trace elements in crustose coralline algae from the North Atlantic and North Pacific by laser ablation ICP-MS. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 302, 81\u201394 (2011).","journal-title":"Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol."},{"key":"84537_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gca.2019.03.015","volume":"254","author":"E Anagnostou","year":"2019","unstructured":"Anagnostou, E., Williams, B., Westfield, I., Foster, G. L. & Ries, J. B. Calibration of the pH-\u03b411B and temperature-Mg\/Li proxies in the long-lived high-latitude crustose coralline red alga Clathromorphum compactum via controlled laboratory experiments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 254, 142\u2013155 (2019).","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"84537_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2960","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1419216112","volume":"112","author":"J Fietzke","year":"2015","unstructured":"Fietzke, J. et al. Century-scale trends and seasonality in pH and temperature for shallow zones of the Bering Sea. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 112, 2960\u20132965 (2015).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"84537_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00045545","volume":"26","author":"WH Adey","year":"1965","unstructured":"Adey, W. H. The genus Clathromorphum (Corallinaceae) in the Gulf of Maine. Hydrobiologia 26, 539\u2013573 (1965).","journal-title":"Hydrobiologia"},{"key":"84537_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1130\/G24635A.1","volume":"36","author":"J Halfar","year":"2008","unstructured":"Halfar, J., Steneck, R. S., Joachimski, M., Kronz, A. & Wanamaker, A. D. Jr. Coralline red algae as high-resolution climate recorders. Geology 36, 463\u2013466 (2008).","journal-title":"Geology"},{"key":"84537_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adey, W. H., Halfar, J. & Williams, B. The coralline genus Clathromorphum foslie emend. adey: biological, physiological, and ecological factors controlling carbonate production in an arctic-subarctic climate archive. (2013).","DOI":"10.5479\/si.1943667X.40.1"},{"key":"84537_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.3354\/meps13506","volume":"654","author":"BA Twist","year":"2020","unstructured":"Twist, B. A. et al. The need to employ reliable and reproducible species identifications in coralline algal research. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 654, 225\u2013231 (2020).","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"84537_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adey, W. H., Hernandez-Kantun, J. J., Gabrielson, P. W., Nash, M. C. & Hayek, L. A. C. Phymatolithon (Melobesioideae, Hapalidiales) in the boreal\u2013subarctic Transition zone of the North Atlantic: A Correlation of Plastid DNA Markers with morpho-anatomy, Ecology, and Biogeography. (Smithsonian Institution Scholarly, 2018).","DOI":"10.5479\/si.1943-667X.41"},{"key":"84537_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2876","DOI":"10.1029\/2018GC007504","volume":"19","author":"T Light","year":"2018","unstructured":"Light, T. et al. Advancing Mg\/Ca Analysis of Coralline Algae as a Climate Proxy by assessing LA-ICP\u2010OES Sampling and coupled Mg\/Ca\u2010\u03b418O analysis. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 19, 2876\u20132894 (2018).","journal-title":"Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst."},{"key":"84537_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemgeo.2020.119693","volume":"550","author":"RE Zeebe","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zeebe, R. E. & Rae, J. W. B. Equilibria, kinetics, and boron isotope partitioning in the aqueous boric acid\u2013hydrofluoric acid system. Chem. Geol. 550, 119693 (2020).","journal-title":"Chem. Geol."},{"key":"84537_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1111\/ggr.12363","volume":"45","author":"JA Stewart","year":"2020","unstructured":"Stewart, J. A. et al. NIST RM 8301 Boron isotopes in Marine Carbonate (simulated coral and Foraminifera Solutions): inter-laboratory \u03b411B and trace element ratio value assignment. Geostand. Geoanal. Res. 45, 77\u201396 (2020).","journal-title":"Geostand. Geoanal. Res."},{"key":"84537_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3730","DOI":"10.1002\/ggge.20230","volume":"14","author":"EC Hathorne","year":"2013","unstructured":"Hathorne, E. C. et al. Interlaboratory study for coral Sr\/Ca and other element\/Ca ratio measurements. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 14, 3730\u20133750 (2013).","journal-title":"Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst."},{"key":"84537_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2008.04.015","volume":"271","author":"GL Foster","year":"2008","unstructured":"Foster, G. L. Seawater pH, pCO\u2082 and [CO\u2083\u00b2\u02c9] variations in the Caribbean Sea over the last 130 kyr: a boron isotope and B\/Ca study of planktic foraminifera. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 271, 254\u2013266 (2008).","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"84537_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2010.12.034","volume":"302","author":"JWB Rae","year":"2011","unstructured":"Rae, J. W. B., Foster, G. L., Schmidt, D. N. & Elliott, T. Boron isotopes and B\/Ca in benthic foraminifera: proxies for the deep ocean carbonate system. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 302, 403\u2013413 (2011).","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"84537_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1016\/0198-0149(90)90004-F","volume":"37","author":"AG Dickson","year":"1990","unstructured":"Dickson, A. G. Thermodynamics of the dissociation of boric acid in synthetic seawater from 273.15 to 318.15 K. Deep Sea Res. Part. Oceanogr. Res. Papers 37, 755\u2013766 (1990).","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. Part. Oceanogr. Res. Papers"},{"key":"84537_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-7037(92)90151-8","volume":"56","author":"NG Hemming","year":"1992","unstructured":"Hemming, N. G. & Hanson, G. N. Boron Isotopic Composition and Concentration in Modern Marine carbonates. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 56, 537\u2013543 (1992).","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"84537_CR68","unstructured":"Zeebe, R. E. & Wolf-Gladrow, D. A. CO2 in seawater: equilibrium, kinetics, isotopes. Vol. 65. (Elsevier, Elsevier Oceanography Series, 2001)."},{"key":"84537_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2006.05.034","volume":"248","author":"K Klochko","year":"2006","unstructured":"Klochko, K., Kaufman, A. J., Yao, W., Byrne, R. H. & Tossell, J. A. Experimental measurement of boron isotope fractionation in seawater. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 248, 276\u2013285 (2006).","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"84537_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"Q08015","DOI":"10.1029\/2010GC003201","volume":"11","author":"GL Foster","year":"2010","unstructured":"Foster, G. L., von Strandmann, P., Rae, J. W. B. & P. A. E. & Boron and magnesium isotopic composition of seawater. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 11, Q08015 (2010).","journal-title":"Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst."},{"key":"84537_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cornwall, C. E. et al. Resistance of corals and coralline algae to ocean acidification: physiological control of calcification under natural pH variability. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 285, 20181168 (2018).","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2018.1168"},{"key":"84537_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12829","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-49044-w","volume":"9","author":"S Comeau","year":"2019","unstructured":"Comeau, S. et al. Flow-driven micro-scale pH variability affects the physiology of corals and coralline algae under ocean acidification. Sci. Rep. 9, 12829 (2019).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"84537_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Comeau, S. et al. Coral calcifying fluid pH is modulated by seawater carbonate chemistry not solely seawater pH. In: Proc. Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 284 (2017).","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2016.1669"},{"key":"84537_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5745","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-15-5745-2018","volume":"15","author":"S Williams","year":"2018","unstructured":"Williams, S. et al. Effects of light and temperature on mg uptake, growth, and calcification in the proxy climate archive Clathromorphum compactum. Biogeosciences 15, 5745\u20135759 (2018).","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"84537_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13114","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1702143114","volume":"114","author":"TB Chalk","year":"2017","unstructured":"Chalk, T. B. et al. Causes of ice age intensification across the Mid-pleistocene Transition. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 114, 13114\u201313119 (2017).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"84537_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsl.2020.116662","volume":"554","author":"AC Gagnon","year":"2021","unstructured":"Gagnon, A. C., Gothmann, A. M., Branson, O., Rae, J. W. B. & Stewart, J. A. Controls on boron isotopes in a cold-water coral and the cost of resilience to ocean acidification. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 554, 116662 (2021).","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"84537_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemgeo.2016.10.029","volume":"447","author":"JA Stewart","year":"2016","unstructured":"Stewart, J. A., Anagnostou, E. & Foster, G. L. An improved boron isotope pH proxy calibration for the deep-sea coral Desmophyllum dianthus through sub-sampling of fibrous aragonite. Chem. Geol. 447, 148\u2013160 (2016).","journal-title":"Chem. Geol."},{"key":"84537_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ulrich, R. N. et al. Patterns of element incorporation in Calcium Carbonate Biominerals recapitulate phylogeny for a diverse range of Marine calcifiers. Front. Earth Sci. 9, (2021).","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2021.641760"},{"key":"84537_CR79","unstructured":"Seacarb Seawater Carbonate Chemistry. R package version 3.0.6. http:\/\/CRAN.R-project.org\/package=seacarb (2015)."},{"key":"84537_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4203(00)00022-0","volume":"70","author":"TJ Lueker","year":"2000","unstructured":"Lueker, T. J., Dickson, A. G. & Keeling, C. D. Ocean pCO2 calculated from dissolved inorganic carbon, alkalinity, and equations for K1 and K2: validation based on laboratory measurements of CO2 in gas and seawater at equilibrium. Mar. Chem. 70, 105\u2013119 (2000).","journal-title":"Mar. Chem."},{"key":"84537_CR81","unstructured":"Zimmermann, E. Water Quality in the Upper East Branch Penobscot River. (Maine Department of Environmental Protection, 2018)."},{"key":"84537_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3069","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-8-3069-2011","volume":"8","author":"CW Hunt","year":"2011","unstructured":"Hunt, C. W., Salisbury, J. E. & Vandemark, D. Contribution of non-carbonate anions to total alkalinity and overestimation of pCO2 in New England and New Brunswick rivers. Biogeosciences 8, 3069\u20133076 (2011).","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"84537_CR83","unstructured":"Schlitzer, R. Ocean Data View, Version 4.6.5. http:\/\/odv.awi.de (2021)."},{"key":"84537_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0007-4","volume":"556","author":"DJR Thornalley","year":"2018","unstructured":"Thornalley, D. J. R. et al. Anomalously weak Labrador Sea convection and Atlantic overturning during the past 150 years. Nature 556, 227\u2013230 (2018).","journal-title":"Nature"}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-024-84537-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-024-84537-3","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-024-84537-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]],"date-time":"2025-01-15T06:10:17Z","timestamp":1736921417000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-024-84537-3"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["84537"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-024-84537-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]]},"assertion":[{"value":"4 June 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 December 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"15 January 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"2039"}}