{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T20:38:43Z","timestamp":1790714323440,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]],"date-time":"2025-05-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747353600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]],"date-time":"2025-05-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747353600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>This work aims to determine the optimal engine operating conditions for balanced combustion, performance and emissions characteristics with considerable reduction in smoke and nitrogen oxides (NOx). This work examined direct injected (DI) 30% mahua biodiesel-diesel as high reactive fuel (HRF) and port fuel injected (PFI) ethanol as low reactive fuel (LRF) in reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI) combustion at different engine loads and ethanol energy shares (EES) (0, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30%). The RCCI engine was able to access low temperature combustion (LTC) with improved brake thermal efficiency (BTE), lower smoke and NOx with a trade-off in carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC). The duty conditions of modern engines require single optimal operating condition to suit applications such as hybrid powertrain, generators and irrigation pumps. Using response surface methodology (RSM) it was established that 28.43% EES at 83.4% engine load resulted in optimal output responses for their due weightages assigned. This was validated by experimental results. In RCCI mode BTE of 32.54%, brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) of 10.79\u00a0MJ\/kWh were realized. Also, smoke and NOx were reduced by 34.8% and 29.3%, with a compromise in CO and HC increase by 36.4% and 34.9% compared to DI mode. All the engine output parameters reported were within acceptable range. HC and CO can be mitigated with conventional catalytic convertors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-00497-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]],"date-time":"2025-05-16T17:24:58Z","timestamp":1747416298000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Establish operating conditions for optimal output characteristics in reactivity controlled combustion engine"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Sinnappadass","family":"Muniyappan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ravi","family":"Krishnaiah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"497_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Boretti, A. Advantages and disadvantages of diesel single and Dual-Fuel engines. Front. Mech. Eng. 5 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmech.2019.00064 (2019).","DOI":"10.3389\/fmech.2019.00064"},{"key":"497_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123700","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.123700","volume":"318","author":"Z Li","year":"2022","unstructured":"Li, Z. et al. An exploratory numerical study of a diesel\/methanol dual-fuel injector: effects of nozzle number, nozzle diameter and spray spacial angle on a diesel\/methanol dual-fuel direct injection engine. Fuel 318, 123700. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.123700 (2022).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2021.122373","volume":"239","author":"M Kalil Rahiman","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kalil Rahiman, M., Santhoshkumar, S., Subramaniam, D., Avinash, A. & Pugazhendhi, A. Effects of oxygenated fuel pertaining to fuel analysis on diesel engine combustion and emission characteristics. Energy 239, 122373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.energy.2021.122373 (2022).","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"497_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijft.2022.100200","volume":"16","author":"R Madihi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Madihi, R., Pourfallah, M., Gholinia, M., Armin, M. & Ghadi, A. Z. Thermofluids analysis of combustion, emissions, and energy in a biodiesel (C11H22O2) \/ natural gas heavy-duty engine with RCCI mode (Part II: fuel injection time\/ fuel injection rate). Int. J. Thermofluids. 16, 100200. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijft.2022.100200 (2022).","journal-title":"Int. J. Thermofluids"},{"key":"497_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-99-3106-4_7","volume-title":"Current Research Trends and Applications in Waste Management","author":"U Chaurasiya","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chaurasiya, U. et al. Microbial intervention in waste remediation for Bio-Energy production. Current Research Trends and Applications in Waste Management, Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore; 163\u2013190. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-981-99-3106-4_7. (2023)."},{"key":"497_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2021.11.359","volume":"51","author":"M Arya","year":"2022","unstructured":"Arya, M., Kumar Rout, A. & Samanta, S. A review on the effect of engine performance and emission characteristics of C.I. Engine using Diesel-Biodiesel-Additives fuel blend. Mater. Today Proc. 51, 2224\u20132232. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.matpr.2021.11.359 (2022).","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"497_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2022.126140","volume":"265","author":"RK Mohan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Mohan, R. K., Sarojini, J., Rajak, U., Verma, T. N. & A\u011fbulut, \u00dc. Alternative fuel production from waste plastics and their usability in light duty diesel engine: combustion, energy, and environmental analysis. Energy 265, 126140. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.energy.2022.126140 (2023).","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"497_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117026","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.117026","volume":"265","author":"S Simsek","year":"2020","unstructured":"Simsek, S. Effects of biodiesel obtained from Canola, sefflower oils and waste oils on the engine performance and exhaust emissions. Fuel 265, 117026. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.117026 (2020).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsep.2019.05.004","volume":"12","author":"U Rajak","year":"2019","unstructured":"Rajak, U., Nashine, P. & Verma, T. N. Performance analysis and exhaust emissions of aegle Methyl ester operated compression ignition engine. Therm. Sci. Eng. Progress. 12, 100354. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tsep.2019.05.004 (2019).","journal-title":"Therm. Sci. Eng. Progress"},{"key":"497_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14104","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-25048-4","volume":"30","author":"A Masudi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Masudi, A., Muraza, O., Jusoh, N. W. C. & Ubaidillah, U. Improvements in the stability of biodiesel fuels: recent progress and challenges. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 30, 14104\u201314125. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11356-022-25048-4 (2022).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"497_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joei.2022.101153","volume":"106","author":"W Yang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yang, W., Wang, Y., Bai, Y., Hao, L. & Liu, X. Experimental study of the bioethanol substitution rate and the diesel injection strategies on combustion and emission characteristics of dual-fuel-direct-injection (DFDI) engine. J. Energy Inst. 106, 101153. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.joei.2022.101153 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Energy Inst."},{"key":"497_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"124072","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.124072","volume":"321","author":"A Gaur","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gaur, A., Dwivedi, G., Baredar, P. & Jain, S. Influence of blending additives in biodiesel on physiochemical properties, engine performance, and emission characteristics. Fuel 321, 124072. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.124072 (2022).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mset.2021.12.004","volume":"5","author":"MM Khan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Khan, M. M., Sharma, R. P., Kadian, A. K. & Hasnain, S. M. M. An assessment of alcohol inclusion in various combinations of biodiesel-diesel on the performance and exhaust emission of modern-day compression ignition engines \u2013 A review. Mater. Sci. Energy Technol. 5, 81\u201398. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.mset.2021.12.004 (2022).","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Energy Technol."},{"key":"497_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2022.02.038","volume":"188","author":"J Li","year":"2022","unstructured":"Li, J. et al. Fuel ethanol production from starchy grain and other crops: an overview on feedstocks, affecting factors, and technical advances. Renew. Energy. 188, 223\u2013239. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.renene.2022.02.038 (2022).","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"497_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.121360","volume":"304","author":"Z Chen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Chen, Z., He, J., Chen, H., Geng, L. & Zhang, P. Comparative study on the combustion and emissions of dual-fuel common rail engines fueled with diesel\/methanol, diesel\/ethanol, and diesel\/n-butanol. Fuel 304, 121360. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.121360 (2021).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.120451","volume":"293","author":"K Shrivastava","year":"2021","unstructured":"Shrivastava, K., Thipse, S. S. & Patil, I. D. Optimization of diesel engine performance and emission parameters of Karanja biodiesel-ethanol-diesel blends at optimized operating conditions. Fuel 293, 120451. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.120451 (2021).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cscee.2022.100249","volume":"6","author":"P Karin","year":"2022","unstructured":"Karin, P. et al. Influence of ethanol-biodiesel blends on diesel engines combustion behavior and particulate matter physicochemical characteristics. Case Stud. Chem. Environ. Eng. 6, 100249. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cscee.2022.100249 (2022).","journal-title":"Case Stud. Chem. Environ. Eng."},{"key":"497_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1177\/0958305X20960701","volume":"32","author":"H G\u00fcrb\u00fcz","year":"2021","unstructured":"G\u00fcrb\u00fcz, H., Demirt\u00fcrk, S., Ak\u00e7ay, \u0130. H. & Ak\u00e7ay, H. Effect of Port injection of ethanol on engine performance, exhaust emissions and environmental factors in a dual-fuel diesel engine. Energy Environ. 32, 784\u2013802. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0958305X20960701 (2021).","journal-title":"Energy Environ."},{"key":"497_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117094","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.117094","volume":"267","author":"J Gohn","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gohn, J., Gainey, B., Zainul, S. & Lawler, B. Wet ethanol in LTC: how water fraction and DTBP affect combustion and intake temperature at naturally aspirated and boosted conditions. Fuel 267, 117094. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.117094 (2020).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12153","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-10934-6","volume":"28","author":"R Shanmugam","year":"2021","unstructured":"Shanmugam, R., Murugesan, P., Guye, G. G. & Duraisamy, B. Effect of additives on the stability of ethanol-diesel blends for IC engine application. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 28, 12153\u201312167. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11356-020-10934-6 (2021).","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"497_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.119142","volume":"285","author":"X Duan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Duan, X., Lai, M-C., Jansons, M., Guo, G. & Liu, J. A review of controlling strategies of the ignition timing and combustion phase in homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engine. Fuel 285, 119142. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.119142 (2021).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.122025","volume":"308","author":"K Panda","year":"2022","unstructured":"Panda, K. & Ramesh, A. Parametric investigations to Establish the potential of methanol based RCCI engine and comparison with the conventional dual fuel mode. Fuel 308, 122025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.122025 (2022).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128871","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.128871","volume":"351","author":"X Liu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Liu, X. et al. Optimizing RCCI combustion for improved engine performance under low load conditions: impact of low-reactivity fuel and direct injection timing. Fuel 351, 128871. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.128871 (2023).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5203","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.3c04005","volume":"9","author":"E Ramachandran","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ramachandran, E. et al. Multicriteria Decision-Making technique for choosing the optimal Ammonia energy share in an Ammonia\u2013Biodiesel-Fueled Reactivity-Controlled compression ignition engine. ACS Omega. 9, 5203\u20135214. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsomega.3c04005 (2024).","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"497_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2021.117449","volume":"198","author":"IB Dalha","year":"2021","unstructured":"Dalha, I. B., Said, M. A., Abdul Karim, Z. A. & El-Adawy, M. Effects of Port mixing and high carbon dioxide contents on power generation and emission characteristics of biogas-diesel RCCI combustion. Appl. Therm. Eng. 198, 117449. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2021.117449 (2021).","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"497_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2021.118003","volume":"204","author":"GD Telli","year":"2022","unstructured":"Telli, G. D., Zulian, G. Y., Lanzanova, T. D. M., Martins, M. E. S. & Rocha, L. A. O. An experimental study of performance, combustion and emissions characteristics of an ethanol HCCI engine using water injection. Appl. Therm. Eng. 204, 118003. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2021.118003 (2022).","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"497_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125097","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.125097","volume":"327","author":"M Gowthama Krishnan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gowthama Krishnan, M. & Rajkumar, S. Effects of start of injection and exhaust gas recirculation on dual fuel combustion of Isobutanol with diesel and waste cooking oil biodiesel in a diesel engine at higher loads. Fuel 327, 125097. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.125097 (2022).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.128143","volume":"345","author":"AM Elbanna","year":"2023","unstructured":"Elbanna, A. M., Cheng, X., Yang, C., Elkelawy, M. & Alm-Eldin Bastawissi, H. Investigative research of diesel\/ethanol advanced combustion strategies: A comparison of premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) and direct dual fuel stratification (DDFS). Fuel 345, 128143. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.128143 (2023).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2019.116725","volume":"263","author":"GR Gawale","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gawale, G. R. & Naga Srinivasulu, G. Experimental investigation of ethanol\/diesel and ethanol\/biodiesel on dual fuel mode HCCI engine for different engine load conditions. Fuel 263, 116725. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2019.116725 (2020).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128687","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.128687","volume":"350","author":"U Rajak","year":"2023","unstructured":"Rajak, U. et al. Sustainability evaluation of green microalgae biofuel production and reducing the engine emissions in a common rail direct engine. Fuel 350, 128687. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.128687 (2023).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"130529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.130529","volume":"359","author":"VM Dom\u00ednguez","year":"2024","unstructured":"Dom\u00ednguez, V. M., Hern\u00e1ndez, J. J., Ramos, \u00c1., Gim\u00e9nez, B. & Rodr\u00edguez-Fern\u00e1ndez, J. Exploring the effect of methanol and ethanol on the overall performance and substitution window of a dual-fuel compression-ignition engine fueled with HVO. Fuel 359, 130529. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.130529 (2024).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiec.2024.02.039","volume":"133","author":"SM Alardhi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Alardhi, S. M. et al. Artificial neural network and response surface methodology for modeling reverse osmosis process in wastewater treatment. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 133, 599\u2013613. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jiec.2024.02.039 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Ind. Eng. Chem."},{"key":"497_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102673","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2022.102673","volume":"47","author":"BCY Lee","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lee, B. C. Y., Mahtab, M. S., Neo, T. H., Farooqi, I. H. & Khursheed, A. A comprehensive review of design of experiment (DOE) for water and wastewater treatment application - Key concepts, methodology and contextualized application. J. Water Process. Eng. 47, 102673. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jwpe.2022.102673 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Water Process. Eng."},{"key":"497_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118305","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2020.118305","volume":"211","author":"S Bhowmik","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bhowmik, S., Paul, A., Panua, R. & Ghosh, S. K. Performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with diesel-kerosene-ethanol: A multi-objective optimization study. Energy 211, 118305. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.energy.2020.118305 (2020).","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"497_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Muniyappan, S. & Krishnaiah, R. Assessment of ternary blend ratio of diesel\/mahua biodiesel with n-heptane\/fusel alcohol on CI engine characteristics \u2013 an experimental and statistical approach. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering. (2024). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/09544089241297244","DOI":"10.1177\/09544089241297244"},{"key":"497_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.3390\/en16010229","volume":"16","author":"S Kesharvani","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kesharvani, S., Dwivedi, G., Verma, T. N. & Verma, P. The experimental investigation of a diesel engine using ternary blends of algae biodiesel, ethanol and diesel fuels. Energies (Basel). 16, 229. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en16010229 (2022).","journal-title":"Energies (Basel)"},{"key":"497_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2456","DOI":"10.1177\/09544062231191882","volume":"238","author":"R Elumalai","year":"2024","unstructured":"Elumalai, R. & Ravi, K. Optimization of ideal engine parameters to adopt ammonia and algae biodiesel for reactivity controlled compression ignition engine using response surface methodology. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. C J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 238, 2456\u20132473. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/09544062231191882 (2024).","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. C J. Mech. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"497_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2020.102101","volume":"36","author":"Z Li","year":"2021","unstructured":"Li, Z., Lu, D. & Gao, X. Optimization of mixture proportions by statistical experimental design using response surface method - A review. J. Building Eng. 36, 102101. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jobe.2020.102101 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Building Eng."},{"key":"497_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2019.116371","volume":"261","author":"V Ayhan","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ayhan, V. et al. Optimization of the factors affecting performance and emissions in a diesel engine using biodiesel and EGR with Taguchi method. Fuel 261, 116371. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2019.116371 (2020).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117072","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.117072","volume":"266","author":"M Elkelawy","year":"2020","unstructured":"Elkelawy, M. et al. Maximization of biodiesel production from sunflower and soybean oils and prediction of diesel engine performance and emission characteristics through response surface methodology. Fuel 266, 117072. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.117072 (2020).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kumar, S., Yadav, P. S., Kumar, M. & Gautam, R. Multi-aspect assessment and multi\u2010objective optimization of preheated tallow biodiesel\u2010diesel blend as alternate fuel in <\u2009scp\u2009>\u2009ci engine. Environ. Prog Sustain. Energy. 44. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ep.14518 (2025).","DOI":"10.1002\/ep.14518"},{"key":"497_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/17597269.2018.1519759","volume":"11","author":"M Walle Mekonen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Walle Mekonen, M. & Sahoo, N. Combined effects of fuel injection pressure and injector nozzle holes on the performance of preheated palm oil Methyl ester used in a diesel engine. Biofuels 11, 19\u201335. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/17597269.2018.1519759 (2020).","journal-title":"Biofuels"},{"key":"497_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.118565","volume":"279","author":"Z Li","year":"2020","unstructured":"Li, Z. et al. Dual fuel intelligent charge compression ignition (ICCI) combustion: efficient and clean combustion technology for compression ignition engines. Fuel 279, 118565. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.118565 (2020).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126733","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2023.126733","volume":"268","author":"Y Wang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wang, Y. et al. Thermodynamic and exergy analysis of high compression ratio coupled with late intake valve closing to improve thermal efficiency of two-stage turbocharged diesel engines. Energy 268, 126733. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.energy.2023.126733 (2023).","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"497_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2023.04.033","volume":"174","author":"\u015e Altun","year":"2023","unstructured":"Altun, \u015e., F\u0131rat, M., Varol, Y. & Okcu, M. Comparison of direct and Port injection of methanol in a RCCI engine using diesel and biodiesel as high reactivity fuels. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 174, 681\u2013693. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.psep.2023.04.033 (2023).","journal-title":"Process Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"497_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2024.121790","volume":"237","author":"G Li","year":"2024","unstructured":"Li, G. et al. Effects of isopropanol-butanol-ethanol on the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a diesel-methanol dual-fuel engine. Renew. Energy. 237, 121790. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.renene.2024.121790 (2024).","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"497_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1080\/15435075.2021.1897829","volume":"18","author":"R Jatoth","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jatoth, R., Gugulothu, S. K., Sastry, G. R. K. & Surya, M. S. Statistical and experimental investigation of the influence of fuel injection strategies on gasoline\/diesel RCCI combustion and emission characteristics in a diesel engine. Int. J. Green. Energy. 18, 1229\u20131248. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15435075.2021.1897829 (2021).","journal-title":"Int. J. Green. Energy"},{"key":"497_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Geo, V. E. et al. CO2 reduction in a common rail direct injection engine using the combined effect of low carbon biofuels, hydrogen and a post combustion carbon capture system. Energy Sour. Part A Recover. Utilization Environ. Eff. 2021:1\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15567036.2021.1974128","DOI":"10.1080\/15567036.2021.1974128"},{"key":"497_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.128390","volume":"348","author":"B Deepanraj","year":"2023","unstructured":"Deepanraj, B. et al. Enhancement of RCCI engine characteristics of Jatropha oil biodiesel as high reactivity fuel and 1-pentanol as low reactivity fuel with variable injection timing. Fuel 348, 128390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.128390 (2023).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2022.123464","volume":"247","author":"J Liu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Liu, J. et al. Experimental study on effects of pilot injection strategy on combustion and emission characteristics of diesel\/methanol dual-fuel engine under low load. Energy 247, 123464. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.energy.2022.123464 (2022).","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"497_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zhang, P., He, J., Chen, H., Zhao, X. & Geng, L. Improved combustion and emission characteristics of ethylene glycol\/diesel dual-fuel engine by port injection timing and direct injection timing. Fuel Processing Technol. 199 106289. (2020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuproc.2019.106289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2019.106289"},{"key":"497_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.122397","volume":"310","author":"U Asad","year":"2022","unstructured":"Asad, U., Divekar, P. S. & Zheng, M. High efficiency ethanol\u2013diesel dual-fuel combustion: analyses of performance, emissions and thermal efficiency over the engine load range. Fuel 310, 122397. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.122397 (2022).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2807","DOI":"10.1177\/14680874221114532","volume":"24","author":"AK Agarwal","year":"2023","unstructured":"Agarwal, A. K. & Krishnamoorthi, M. Review of morphological and chemical characteristics of particulates from compression ignition engines. Int. J. Engine Res. 24, 2807\u20132865. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/14680874221114532 (2023).","journal-title":"Int. J. Engine Res."},{"key":"497_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"124015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.124015","volume":"321","author":"H Karimi Motaalegh Mahalegi","year":"2022","unstructured":"Karimi Motaalegh Mahalegi, H. & Mardani, A. Structure of the ethanol spray flame under conventional and MILD conditions. Fuel 321, 124015. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.124015 (2022).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2021.120204","volume":"225","author":"D Kakati","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kakati, D., Biswas, S. & Banerjee, R. Parametric sensitivity analysis of split injection coupled varying methanol induced reactivity strategies on the exergy efficiency enhancement and emission reductions objectives in a biodiesel fuelled CI engine. Energy 225, 120204. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.energy.2021.120204 (2021).","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"497_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132939","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2024.132939","volume":"378","author":"A Sengupta","year":"2024","unstructured":"Sengupta, A., Biswas, S. & Banerjee, R. Stratified injection strategies: Deciphering the emission and combustion synergies of n-butanol\/diesel blends in single cylinder engines. Fuel 378, 132939. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2024.132939 (2024).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"130326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.130326","volume":"359","author":"A Lius","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lius, A., Sj\u00f6berg, M., Cronhjort, A. & Olofsson, U. Experimental and chemical-kinetic evaluation of a heavy-duty methanol PFI engine with direct water injection. Fuel 359, 130326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.130326 (2024).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecmx.2021.100133","volume":"13","author":"A Mohammed Elbanna","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mohammed Elbanna, A. et al. Fuel reactivity controlled compression ignition engine and potential strategies to extend the engine operating range: A comprehensive review. Energy Convers. Management: X. 13, 100133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ecmx.2021.100133 (2022).","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Management: X"},{"key":"497_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.121590","volume":"305","author":"W Zhao","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zhao, W. et al. Experimental investigation on combustion and emission characteristics of butanol\/biodiesel under blend fuel mode, dual fuel RCCI and ICCI modes. Fuel 305, 121590. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.121590 (2021).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1080\/15435075.2019.1653878","volume":"16","author":"S-Y No","year":"2019","unstructured":"No, S-Y. Application of bioethanol to advanced CI engines; dual fuel and RCCI combustion modes \u2013 a review. Int. J. Green. Energy. 16, 1105\u20131130. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15435075.2019.1653878 (2019).","journal-title":"Int. J. Green. Energy"},{"key":"497_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.121346","volume":"304","author":"S Biswas","year":"2021","unstructured":"Biswas, S., Kakati, D., Chakraborti, P. & Banerjee, R. Assessing the potential of ethanol in the transition of biodiesel combustion to RCCI regimes under varying injection phasing strategies: A performance-emission-stability and tribological perspective. Fuel 304, 121346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.121346 (2021).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"497_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"124231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2022.124231","volume":"254","author":"S Biswas","year":"2022","unstructured":"Biswas, S., Kakati, D., Chakraborti, P. & Banerjee, R. Performance-emission-stability mapping of CI engine in RCCI-PCCI modes under varying ethanol and CNG induced reactivity profiles: A comparative study through experimental and optimization perspectives. Energy 254, 124231. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.energy.2022.124231 (2022).","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"497_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131782","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2024.131782","volume":"301","author":"JB Ooi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ooi, J. B. et al. Experimental study of quaternary blends with diesel\/palm-oil biodiesel\/ethanol\/diethyl ether for optimum performance and emissions in a light-duty diesel engine using response surface methodology. Energy 301, 131782. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.energy.2024.131782 (2024).","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"497_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seta.2023.103580","volume":"61","author":"MS Abishek","year":"2024","unstructured":"Abishek, M. S. et al. Alumina and titanium nanoparticles to diesel\u2013Guizotia abyssinica (L.) biodiesel blends on MFVCR engine performance and emissions. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 61, 103580. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.seta.2023.103580 (2024).","journal-title":"Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-00497-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-00497-2","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-00497-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]],"date-time":"2025-05-16T17:24:59Z","timestamp":1747416299000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-00497-2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["497"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-00497-2","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,16]]},"assertion":[{"value":"25 February 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"28 April 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 May 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}},{"value":"No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Disclosure statement"}}],"article-number":"17101"}}