{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T17:30:53Z","timestamp":1793727053777,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,13]],"date-time":"2025-07-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752364800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,13]],"date-time":"2025-07-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752364800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>Volunteering has been associated with enhanced individual and societal well-being around the world. While some prior research has assessed cultural and sociodemographic differences in volunteering, we know little about how volunteering differs across sociodemographic indicators cross-nationally. Using data from the Global Flourishing Study, a diverse and international sample of 202,898 individuals across 22 countries, we examined the distribution of volunteering across demographic factors (age, gender, marital status, employment status, religious service attendance, education, and immigration status) and across countries. We found variation in volunteering across demographic groups and countries. Unadjusted proportions of volunteering varied between countries: Nigeria showed the highest proportion (0.51) followed by Indonesia (0.46) and Kenya (0.40), while Japan (0.09), Poland (0.08), and Egypt (0.04) showed the lowest proportions of volunteering. Random effects meta-analyses showed that the proportion of people who volunteered differed between demographic groups (e.g., volunteering was higher among those with more education and religious service attendance). Because of the growing evidence of substantial contributions of volunteering to individual as well as societal well-being, it is increasingly important for organizations, governments, and public health officials alike to consider ways to ensure accessibility for able and willing volunteers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-05459-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,13]],"date-time":"2025-07-13T05:57:36Z","timestamp":1752386256000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Understanding who volunteers globally through an examination of demographic variation in volunteering across 22 countries"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Julia S.","family":"Nakamura","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cristina B.","family":"Gibson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert D.","family":"Woodberry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew T.","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Young-Il","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Koichiro","family":"Shiba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"R. Noah","family":"Padgett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Byron R.","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tyler J.","family":"VanderWeele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"5459_CR1","unstructured":"UN Volunteers. What is not counted does not count: Global volunteering estimates. https:\/\/swvr2022.unv.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/11\/Chapter-2_web.pdf (2022)."},{"key":"5459_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbq024","volume":"65B","author":"N Morrow-Howell","year":"2010","unstructured":"Morrow-Howell, N. Volunteering in later life: Research frontiers. J. Gerontol. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 65B, 461\u2013469 (2010).","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"5459_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Einolf, C. J. et al. Unorganized volunteering. In The Palgrave Handbook of Volunteering, Civic Participation, and Nonprofit Associations (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-137-26317-9_10"},{"key":"5459_CR4","unstructured":"Charities Aid Foundation. World Giving Index. https:\/\/www.cafonline.org\/docs\/default-source\/updated-pdfs-for-the-new -website\/world-giving-index-2023.pdf (2023)."},{"key":"5459_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batson, C. D. & Powell, A. A. Altruism and prosocial behavior. In Handbook of Psychology: Personality and Social Psychology (John Wiley & Sons, 2003).","DOI":"10.1002\/0471264385.wei0519"},{"key":"5459_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-2409.2008.00009.x","volume":"2","author":"M Snyder","year":"2008","unstructured":"Snyder, M. & Omoto, A. M. Volunteerism: Social issues perspectives and social policy implications. Soc. Issues Policy Rev. 2, 1\u201336 (2008).","journal-title":"Soc. Issues Policy Rev."},{"key":"5459_CR7","unstructured":"The Conference Board of Canada. The value of volunteering in Canada. https:\/\/volunteer.ca\/vdemo\/Campaigns_DOCS\/Value%20of%20Volunteering%20in%20Canada%20Conf%20Board%20Final%20Report%20EN.pdf (2018)."},{"key":"5459_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"930","DOI":"10.5465\/amj.2020.1664","volume":"65","author":"CB Gibson","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gibson, C. B. Investing in communities: Forging new ground in corporate community codevelopment through relational and psychological pathways. Acad. Manage. J. 65, 930\u2013957 (2022).","journal-title":"Acad. Manage. J."},{"key":"5459_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burr, J. A., Mutchler, J. E. & Han, S. H. Volunteering and health in later life. In Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences (Elsevier, 2021).","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-815970-5.00019-X"},{"key":"5459_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-13-773","volume":"13","author":"CE Jenkinson","year":"2013","unstructured":"Jenkinson, C. E. et al. Is volunteering a public health intervention? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the health and survival of volunteers. BMC Public Health. 13, 773 (2013).","journal-title":"BMC Public. Health"},{"key":"5459_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1162\/DAED_a_00330","volume":"144","author":"DC Carr","year":"2015","unstructured":"Carr, D. C., Fried, L. P. & Rowe, J. W. Productivity and engagement in an aging America: The role of volunteerism. Daedalus 144, 55\u201367 (2015).","journal-title":"Daedalus"},{"key":"5459_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1177\/0890117117691705","volume":"31","author":"SS Johnson","year":"2017","unstructured":"Johnson, S. S. & Post, S. G. Rx it\u2019s good to be good (G2BG) 2017 commentary: Prescribing volunteerism for health, happiness, resilience, and longevity. Am. J. Health Promot. 31, 163\u2013172 (2017).","journal-title":"Am. J. Health Promot"},{"key":"5459_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Musick, M. A. & Wilson, J. Volunteers: A Social Profile (Indiana University Press, 2007).","DOI":"10.2979\/3590.0"},{"key":"5459_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilson, J. Volunteering. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 26, 215\u2013240 (2000).","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.soc.26.1.215"},{"key":"5459_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1177\/0899764011434558","volume":"41","author":"J Wilson","year":"2012","unstructured":"Wilson, J. Volunteerism research: A review essay. Nonprofit Volunt Sect. Q. 41, 176\u2013212 (2012).","journal-title":"Nonprofit Volunt Sect. Q."},{"key":"5459_CR16","unstructured":"Stukas, A. A., Snyder, M. & Clary, E. G. Volunteerism and community involvement. In The Oxford Handbook of Prosocial Behavior (Oxford University Press, 2015)."},{"key":"5459_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1177\/0899764005282481","volume":"35","author":"H Taniguchi","year":"2006","unstructured":"Taniguchi, H. Men\u2019s and women\u2019s volunteering: Gender differences in the effects of employment and family characteristics. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Q. 35, 83\u2013101 (2006).","journal-title":"Nonprofit Volunt Sect. Q."},{"key":"5459_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-018-6077-2","volume":"18","author":"J Niebuur","year":"2018","unstructured":"Niebuur, J., van Lente, L., Liefbroer, A. C., Steverink, N. & Smidt, N. Determinants of participation in voluntary work: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal cohort studies. BMC Public Health. 18, 1213 (2018).","journal-title":"BMC Public. Health"},{"key":"5459_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1177\/0899764016628295","volume":"45","author":"JS Piatak","year":"2016","unstructured":"Piatak, J. S. Time is on my side: A framework to examine when unemployed individuals volunteer. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Q. 45, 1169\u20131190 (2016).","journal-title":"Nonprofit Volunt Sect. Q."},{"key":"5459_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1017\/S0047279418000211","volume":"47","author":"I Greenspan","year":"2018","unstructured":"Greenspan, I., Walk, M. & Handy, F. Immigrant integration through volunteering: The importance of contextual factors. J. Soc. Policy\u00a047, 803\u2013825 (2018).","journal-title":"J. Soc. Policy"},{"key":"5459_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1177\/0899764010394203","volume":"41","author":"M Gesthuizen","year":"2012","unstructured":"Gesthuizen, M. & Scheepers, P. Educational differences in volunteering in cross-national perspective: Individual and contextual explanations. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Q. 41, 58\u201381 (2012).","journal-title":"Nonprofit Volunt Sect. Q."},{"key":"5459_CR22","unstructured":"Campbell, D. E. & Yonish, S. J. Religion and volunteering. In America in Religion as Social Capital: Producing the Common Good (Baylor University, 2003)."},{"key":"5459_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1177\/0899764016655619","volume":"46","author":"YI Kim","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kim, Y. I. & Jang, S. J. Religious service attendance and volunteering: A growth curve analysis. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Q. 46, 395\u2013418 (2017).","journal-title":"Nonprofit Volunt Sect. Q."},{"key":"5459_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gr\u00f6nlund, H. Cultural values and volunteering: A cross-cultural perspective. In Altruism in Cross-cultural Perspective (Springer, 2013).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-6952-0_6"},{"key":"5459_CR25","unstructured":"Gallup. The world\u2019s most generous countries. https:\/\/www.gallup.com\/file\/analytics\/245165\/Worlds_Most_Generous_Countries_ Report_2018.pdf (2018)."},{"key":"5459_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1007\/s11266-016-9818-9","volume":"28","author":"AJ Veal","year":"2017","unstructured":"Veal, A. J. & Nichols, G. S. Volunteering and income inequality: Cross-national relationships. Volunt Int. J. Volunt. Nonprofit Organ. 28, 379\u2013399 (2017).","journal-title":"Volunt Int. J. Volunt Nonprofit Organ."},{"key":"5459_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwartz, S. H. Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 Countries. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Elsevier, 1992).","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2601(08)60281-6"},{"key":"5459_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aydinli, A., Bender, M. & Chasiotis, A. Helping and volunteering across cultures: Determinants of prosocial behavior. Psychol. Cult. 5, (2013).","DOI":"10.9707\/2307-0919.1118"},{"key":"5459_CR29","unstructured":"Feygina, I. & Henry, P. J. Culture and prosocial behavior. In The Oxford Handbook of Prosocial Behavior (Oxford University Press, 2015)."},{"key":"5459_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1177\/0003122412457875","volume":"77","author":"C Lim","year":"2012","unstructured":"Lim, C. & MacGregor, C. A. Religion and volunteering in context: Disentangling the contextual effects of religion on voluntary behavior. Am. Sociol. Rev. 77, 747\u2013779 (2012).","journal-title":"Am. Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"5459_CR31","unstructured":"Crabtree, S. et al. Global Flourishing Study: Questionnaire development report. https:\/\/hfh.fas.harvard.edu\/files\/pik\/files\/globalflourishingstudy_report.pdf (2021)."},{"key":"5459_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"VanderWeele, T. J. et al. The Global Flourishing Study: Study profile and initial results on flourishing. Nat. Ment. Health 3, 636\u2013653 (2025).","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-5312412\/v1"},{"key":"5459_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lomas, T. et al. The development of the Global Flourishing Study questionnaire: Charting the evolution of a new 109-item inventory of human flourishing. BMC Glob. Public Health 3, 30 (2025).","DOI":"10.1186\/s44263-025-00139-9"},{"key":"5459_CR34","unstructured":"Padgett, R. N. et al. Global Flourishing Study statistical analyses code. Open Science Framework. Available at: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17605\/osf.io\/vbype."},{"key":"5459_CR35","unstructured":"Ritter, Z. et al. Global Flourishing Study methodology. Open Science Framework. https:\/\/osf.io\/k2s7u (2024)."},{"key":"5459_CR36","first-page":"1","volume":"0","author":"KA Johnson","year":"2023","unstructured":"Johnson, K. A. et al. Assessing religion and spirituality in a cross-cultural sample: Development of religion and spirituality items for the Global Flourishing Study. Relig. Brain Behav. 14, 1\u201314 (2023).","journal-title":"Relig. Brain Behav."},{"key":"5459_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Padgett, R. N. et al. Analytic methodology for demographic variation analyses for wave 1 of the Global Flourishing Study. BMC Glob. and Public Health 3, 28 (2025).","DOI":"10.1186\/s44263-025-00140-2"},{"key":"5459_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Padgett, R. N. et al. Survey sampling design in wave 1 of the Global Flourishing Study. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 40, 391\u2013406 (2025).","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-024-01167-9"},{"key":"5459_CR39","unstructured":"Johnson, B.R., et al. The Global Flourishing Study. Open Science Framework. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17605\/OSF.IO\/3JTZ8 (2024)."},{"key":"5459_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8148","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1702996114","volume":"114","author":"TJ VanderWeele","year":"2017","unstructured":"VanderWeele, T. J. On the promotion of human flourishing. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 114, 8148\u20138156 (2017).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"5459_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1002\/jrsm.12","volume":"1","author":"M Borenstein","year":"2010","unstructured":"Borenstein, M., et al. A basic introduction to fixed-effect and random-effects models for meta-analysis. Res. Synth. Methods 1, 97\u2013111 (2010).","journal-title":"Res. Synth. Methods"},{"key":"5459_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-2389.00156","volume":"8","author":"JE Hunter","year":"2000","unstructured":"Hunter, J. E. & Schmidt, F. L. Fixed effects vs. random effects meta-analysis models: Implications for cumulative research knowledge. Int. J. Sel. Assess. 8, 275\u2013292 (2000).","journal-title":"Int. J. Sel. Assess."},{"key":"5459_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000001180","volume":"31","author":"MB Mathur","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mathur, M. B. & VanderWeele, T. J. Robust metrics and sensitivity analyses for meta-analyses of heterogeneous effects. Epidemiology 31, 356\u2013358 (2020).","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"5459_CR44","unstructured":"R Core Team. R: A Language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation Stat. Comput. https:\/\/www.R-project.org\/ (2024)."},{"key":"5459_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Viechtbauer, W. Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. J. Stat. Softw 36, (2010).","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v036.i03"},{"key":"5459_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1814092116","volume":"116","author":"D J Wilson","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wilson, D. J. The harmonic mean p-value for combining dependent tests. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 116, 1195\u20131200 (2019).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"5459_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwy250","volume":"188","author":"TJ VanderWeele","year":"2019","unstructured":"VanderWeele, T. J. & Mathur, M. B. Some desirable properties of the Bonferroni correction: Is the Bonferroni correction really so bad? Am. J. Epidemiol. 188, 617\u2013618 (2019).","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"5459_CR48","unstructured":"Abdi, H. The Bonferonni and \u0160id\u00e0k corrections for multiple comparisons. Encycl. Meas. Stat. 3 (2007)."},{"key":"5459_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1996.10476908","volume":"91","author":"DB Rubin","year":"1996","unstructured":"Rubin, D. B. Multiple imputation after 18\u2009+\u2009years. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 91, 473\u2013489 (1996).","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"5459_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1741-3737.2005.00191.x","volume":"67","author":"AC Acock","year":"2005","unstructured":"Acock, A. C. Working with missing values. J. Marriage Fam. 67, 1012\u20131028 (2005).","journal-title":"J. Marriage Fam"},{"key":"5459_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"b2393","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.b2393","volume":"338","author":"JAC Sterne","year":"2009","unstructured":"Sterne, J. A. C. et al. Multiple imputation for missing data in epidemiological and clinical research: Potential and pitfalls. BMJ 338, b2393 (2009).","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"5459_CR52","unstructured":"van Burren, S. Flexible Imputation of Missing Data (Chapman & Hall\/CRC, 2023)."},{"key":"5459_CR53","unstructured":"Charities Aid Foundation. World Giving Index. https:\/\/www.cafonline.org\/docs\/default-source\/about-us-research\/caf_world_giving_index_2022_210922-final.pdf (2022)."},{"key":"5459_CR54","unstructured":"Caprara, D., Mati, J. M., Obadare, E. & Perold, H. Volunteering and civic service in three African regions. Glob Econ. Dev, 1\u201327 (2016)."},{"key":"5459_CR55","unstructured":"Hassan, M. Charity work is now firmly restricted in Egypt. https:\/\/www.middleeastmonitor.com\/20240312-charity-work-is-now-firmly-restricted-in-egypt\/ (2024)."},{"key":"5459_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hiromi, T. Who are volunteers in Japan? Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Q. 39, 161-179 (2010).","DOI":"10.1177\/0899764008326480"},{"key":"5459_CR57","unstructured":"Heim, J. Nonprofits need more help than ever. Why aren\u2019t Americans volunteering? https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/dc-md-va\/2023\/12\/09\/volunteer-decline-homeless-pandemic\/ (2023)."},{"key":"5459_CR58","unstructured":"Statistics Poland. Volunteering in 2022. https:\/\/stat.gov.pl\/files\/gfx\/portalinformacyjny\/en\/defaultaktualnosci\/3308\/3\/1\/1\/volunteering_in_2022.pdf (2022)."},{"key":"5459_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9477.2007.00176.x","volume":"30","author":"RD Putnam","year":"2007","unstructured":"Putnam, R. D. E pluribus unum: Diversity and community in the twenty-first century the 2006 Johan Skytte Prize Lecture. Scand. Polit Stud. 30, 137\u2013174 (2007).","journal-title":"Scand. Polit Stud."},{"key":"5459_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003055412000093","volume":"106","author":"RD Woodberry","year":"2012","unstructured":"Woodberry, R. D. The missionary roots of liberal democracy. Am. Polit Sci. Rev. 106, 244\u2013274 (2012).","journal-title":"Am. Polit Sci. Rev."},{"key":"5459_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1108\/01443330710722742","volume":"27","author":"RV Patulny","year":"2007","unstructured":"Patulny, R. V., Lind, H. & Svendsen, G. Exploring the social capital grid: Bonding, bridging, qualitative, quantitative. Int. J. Sociol. Soc. Policy\u00a027, 32\u201351 (2007).","journal-title":"Int. J. Sociol. Soc. Policy"},{"key":"5459_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-5906.00153","volume":"41","author":"R Wuthnow","year":"2002","unstructured":"Wuthnow, R. Religious involvement and status-bridging social capital. J. Sci. Study Relig. 41, 669\u2013684 (2002).","journal-title":"J. Sci. Study Relig."},{"key":"5459_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Putnam, R. D. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (Simon & Schuster, 2000).","DOI":"10.1145\/358916.361990"},{"key":"5459_CR64","unstructured":"Anheier, H. K. Private voluntary organizations and development in West Africa: Comparative perspectives. In The Nonprofit Sector in International Perspective: Studies in Comparative Culture and Policy (Oxford University Press, 1989)."},{"key":"5459_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.2307\/3341215","volume":"17","author":"EG Grabb","year":"1992","unstructured":"Grabb, E. G. & Curtis, J. E. Voluntary association activity in English Canada, French Canada, and the United States: A multivariate analysis. Can. J. Sociol. 17, 371\u2013388 (1992).","journal-title":"Can. J. Sociol. Can. Sociol."},{"key":"5459_CR66","unstructured":"James, E. The Nonprofit Sector in International Perspective: Studies in Comparative Culture and Policy (Oxford University Press, 1989)."},{"key":"5459_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003055415000544","volume":"110","author":"R Braun","year":"2016","unstructured":"Braun, R. Religious minorities and resistance to genocide: The collective rescue of Jews in the Netherlands during the Holocaust. Am. Polit Sci. Rev. 110, 127\u2013147 (2016).","journal-title":"Am. Polit Sci. Rev."},{"key":"5459_CR68","unstructured":"Braun, R. Religious minorities and resistance to genocide: Christian protection of Jews in the low countries during the Holocaust (Cornell University, 2017)."},{"key":"5459_CR69","unstructured":"Young, M. P. Bearing Witness Against Sin: The Evangelical Birth of the American Social Movement (University of Chicago Press, 2006)."},{"key":"5459_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamburger, P. Separation of Church and State (Harvard University Press, 2002).","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674038189"},{"key":"5459_CR71","unstructured":"Woodberry, R. D. The Shadow of Empire: Christian Missions, Colonial Policy, and Democracy in Postcolonial Societies (University of North Carolina, 2004)."},{"key":"5459_CR72","unstructured":"Putnam, R. D. & Campbell, D. E. American Grace: How Religion Divides and Unites Us (Simon & Schuster, 2010)."},{"key":"5459_CR73","unstructured":"Hall, P. D. Inventing the Nonprofit Sector (John Hopkins University, 1992)."},{"key":"5459_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12825","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-16912-x","volume":"12","author":"JS Nakamura","year":"2022","unstructured":"Nakamura, J. S. et al. Identifying pathways to increased volunteering in older US adults. Sci. Rep. 12, 12825 (2022).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"5459_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1177\/08997640211057408","volume":"52","author":"P Wiepking","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wiepking, P., Einolf, C. J. & Yang, Y. The gendered pathways into giving and volunteering: Similar or different across countries? Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Q. 52, 5\u201328 (2023).","journal-title":"Nonprofit Volunt Sect. Q."},{"key":"5459_CR76","unstructured":"World Population Review. Gender equality by country. https:\/\/worldpopulationreview.com\/country-rankings\/gender-equality-by-country (2024)."},{"key":"5459_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.1111\/jssr.12932","volume":"63","author":"LL Roberts","year":"2024","unstructured":"Roberts, L. L. Do the three modern social conditions\u2014high existential security, education, and urbanicity\u2014really make people less religious? A worldwide analysis, 1989\u20132020. J. Sci. Study Relig. 63, 888\u2013916 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Sci. Study Relig."},{"key":"5459_CR78","unstructured":"Moslimani, M. & Passel, J. S. What the data says about immigrants in the U.S. https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/short-reads\/2024\/09\/27\/key-findings-about-us-immigrants\/ (2024)."},{"key":"5459_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0278178","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0278178","volume":"17","author":"RG Cowden","year":"2022","unstructured":"Cowden, R. G. et al. Identifying pathways to religious service attendance among older adults: A lagged exposure-wide analysis. PLoS One\u00a017, e0278178 (2022).","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"5459_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boje, T. P., Hermansen, J. spsampsps M\u00f8berg, R. J. Gender and volunteering in Scandinavia. In Civic Engagement in Scandinavia (Springer International Publishing, 2019).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-98717-0_7"},{"key":"5459_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morris, R. J. Clubs societies and associations. In The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750\u20131950 (Cambridge University Press, 1990).","DOI":"10.1017\/CHOL9780521257909.009"},{"key":"5459_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1177\/0899764010385949","volume":"40","author":"Einolf","year":"2011","unstructured":"Einolf, C. J. Gender differences in the correlates of volunteering and charitable giving. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Q. 40, 1092\u20131112 (2011).","journal-title":"Nonprofit Volunt Sect. Q."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-05459-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-05459-2","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-05459-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,7]],"date-time":"2025-09-07T07:07:46Z","timestamp":1757228866000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-05459-2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,13]]},"references-count":82,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["5459"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-05459-2","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"22 July 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"2 June 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"13 July 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Tyler VanderWeele reports consulting fees from Gloo Inc., along with shared revenue received by Harvard University in its license agreement with Gloo according to the University IP policy.\u00a0All of the remaining authors declare no conflict of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"25299"}}