{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T03:40:32Z","timestamp":1790912432742,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]],"date-time":"2025-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751328000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]],"date-time":"2025-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751328000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>Understanding the distribution of multi-scale hydraulic fractures (HFs) is critical to improving coal bed methane (CBM) production. The HFs range from metres, centimetres to millimetres are revealed through coal mining face, X-ray CT, and stereoscope. The hydraulic fracturing curves can be categorised as descending, horizontal, ascending and fluctuating. While descending and horizontal types exhibited more effective hydraulic fracturing compared with ascending and fluctuating types. Macroscopic fractures are predominantly horizontal, vertical, X and T shaped. Closer to the CBM wellbore, the macroscopic fractures are more closely spaced and show greater connectivity with the bedding planes of various coal rock layers. During hydraulic fracturing, the fracturing fluid expands selectively along weak surfaces, such as joints in coal seams, leading to the formation of main fractures. Under high fracturing fluid pressure, HFs can penetrate various maceral specification layers and even propagate through coal gangue. Quartz sand embedded in the coal can trigger millimetre-scale HFs while remaining open. The development of multi-scale HFs is influenced by factors such as coal structure, the roof and floor strength, geo-stress, hydraulic fracturing design parameters, quartz sand and coal fines.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-06745-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]],"date-time":"2025-07-01T17:17:19Z","timestamp":1751390239000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Experimental analysis of hydraulic fracturing for fracture network formation in coal beds"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Jiwei","family":"Yan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoxia","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"6745_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1134\/S1062739123020023","volume":"59","author":"A Patutin","year":"2023","unstructured":"Patutin, A., Skulkin, A. & Prasolova, V. Physical modeling of hydraulic fracturing in branched borehole in manmade block. J. Min. Sci. 59(2), 191\u2013198 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Min. Sci."},{"key":"6745_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jngse.2020.103159","volume":"75","author":"J Wu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wu, J. et al. Experimental investigation of crack dynamic evolution induced by pulsating hydraulic fracturing in coalbed methane reservoir1. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 75, 103159 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng."},{"issue":"6","key":"6745_CR3","first-page":"155","volume":"46","author":"G Wang","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wang, G., Wei, Q., Song, X. & Du, L. Evaluation of hydraulic fracturing effect of CBM well in Gujiao Area of Taiyuan Xishan Coalfield. Coal Sci. Technol. 46(6), 155\u2013159 (2018).","journal-title":"Coal Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"3","key":"6745_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.2118\/15218-PA","volume":"3","author":"AW Layne","year":"1988","unstructured":"Layne, A. W. & Byrer, C. W. Analysis of coalbed methane stimulations in the Warrior Basin Alabama. SPE Form. Eval. 3(3), 663\u2013669 (1988).","journal-title":"SPE Form. Eval."},{"issue":"02","key":"6745_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.2118\/13224-PA","volume":"39","author":"N Warpinski","year":"1987","unstructured":"Warpinski, N. & Teufel, L. Influence of geologic discontinuities on hydraulic fracture propagation. J. Petrol. Technol. 39(02), 209\u2013220 (1987).","journal-title":"J. Petrol. Technol."},{"key":"6745_CR6","unstructured":"Diamond, W. & Oyler, D. Effects of stimulation treatments on coalbeds and surrounding strata: evidence from underground observations. (Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh Research Center. 1987)."},{"key":"6745_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeffrey, J., Brynes, R., Lynch, P. & Ling, D. An analysis of hydraulic fracture and mineback data for a treatment in the German creek coal seam. In SPE Rocky Mountain Petroleum Technology Conference\/Low-Permeability Reservoirs Symposium. SPE. SPE-24362-MS (1992).","DOI":"10.2118\/24362-MS"},{"issue":"7","key":"6745_CR8","first-page":"2590","volume":"45","author":"S Lv","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lv, S. et al. Analysis of the influence of natural fracture system on hydraulic fracture propagation morphology in coal reservoir. J. China Coal Soc. 45(7), 2590\u20132601 (2020).","journal-title":"J. China Coal Soc."},{"key":"6745_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.petrol.2022.110490","volume":"214","author":"Z Ma","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ma, Z., Wang, Y. & Zheng, Y. In situ dynamic X-ray imaging of fluid-rock interactions inside tight sandstone during hydraulic fracturing: fluid flow process and fracture network growth. J. Petrol. Sci. Eng. 214, 110490 (2022).","journal-title":"J. Petrol. Sci. Eng."},{"issue":"11","key":"6745_CR10","first-page":"1890","volume":"37","author":"Y Zou","year":"2012","unstructured":"Zou, Y., Zhang, S., Zhang, J., Wang, X. & Lu, H. Damage mechanism of coal powder on fracture conductivity. J. China Coal. Soc. 37(11), 1890\u20131894 (2012).","journal-title":"J. China Coal. Soc."},{"issue":"5","key":"6745_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5566","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.energyfuels.0c00045","volume":"34","author":"FUR Awan","year":"2020","unstructured":"Awan, F. U. R. et al. Stable dispersion of coal fines during hydraulic fracturing flowback in coal seam gas reservoirs\u2014an experimental study. Energy Fuels. 34(5), 5566\u20135577 (2020).","journal-title":"Energy Fuels."},{"issue":"1","key":"6745_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.petlm.2015.11.001","volume":"2","author":"F Liang","year":"2016","unstructured":"Liang, F., Sayed, M., Al-Muntasheri, G. A., Chang, F. F. & Li, L. A comprehensive review on proppant technologies. Petroleum. 2(1), 26\u201339 (2016).","journal-title":"Petroleum."},{"issue":"16","key":"6745_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40735","DOI":"10.1002\/app.40735","volume":"131","author":"R Barati","year":"2014","unstructured":"Barati, R. & Liang, J. A review of fracturing fluid systems used for hydraulic fracturing of oil and gas wells. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 131(16), 40735 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"6745_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tafmec.2021.102937","volume":"113","author":"BY Jamaloei","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jamaloei, B. Y. A critical review of common models in hydraulic-fracturing simulation: A practical guide for practitioners. Theor. Appl. Fract. Mec. 113, 102937 (2021).","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Fract. Mec."},{"key":"6745_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jngse.2017.12.023","volume":"51","author":"Y Wu","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wu, Y. et al. Experimental study of permeability behaviour for proppant supported coal fracture. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 51, 18\u201326 (2018).","journal-title":"J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng."},{"key":"6745_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coal.2020.103566","volume":"228","author":"G Cheng","year":"2020","unstructured":"Cheng, G., Jiang, B., Li, M., Li, F. & Xu, S. Quantitative characterization of fracture structure in coal based on image processing and multifractal theory. Int. J. Coal Geol. 228, 103566 (2020).","journal-title":"Int. J. Coal Geol."},{"key":"6745_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jngse.2014.07.024","volume":"20","author":"B Lin","year":"2014","unstructured":"Lin, B., Liu, T., Zhou, Y., Zhang, Z. & Yan, F. Variation of methane adsorption property of coal after the treatment of hydraulic slotting and methane pre-drainage: a case study. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 20, 396\u2013406 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng."},{"key":"6745_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1010","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jngse.2016.03.065","volume":"33","author":"A Keshavarz","year":"2016","unstructured":"Keshavarz, A., Badalyan, A., Johnson, R. Jr. & Bedrikovetsky, P. Productivity enhancement by stimulation of natural fractures around a hydraulic fracture using micro-sized proppant placement. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 33, 1010\u20131024 (2016).","journal-title":"J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng."},{"key":"6745_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2023.109775","volume":"295","author":"RH Moghaddam","year":"2024","unstructured":"Moghaddam, R. H. & Golshani, A. Experimental study on fracture propagation in anisotropy rock under cyclic hydraulic fracturing. Eng. Fract. Mech. 295, 109775 (2024).","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"6745_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coal.2022.103942","volume":"252","author":"X Wang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wang, X., Pan, J., Wang, K., Mou, P. & Li, J. Fracture variation in high-rank coal induced by hydraulic fracturing using X-ray computer tomography and digital volume correlation. Int. J. Coal Geo. 252, 103942 (2022).","journal-title":"Int. J. Coal Geo."},{"issue":"5","key":"6745_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1016\/S1876-3804(20)60122-7","volume":"47","author":"T Zhou","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zhou, T. et al. Numerical simulation of hydraulic fracture propagation in laminated shale reservoirs. Petrol. Explor. Dev. 47(5), 1117\u20131130 (2020).","journal-title":"Petrol. Explor. Dev."},{"issue":"3","key":"6745_CR22","first-page":"148","volume":"52","author":"H Li","year":"2024","unstructured":"Li, H. et al. Multi-scale analysis of fracturing characteristics of coalbed methane wells in Tunlan Block. Coal Sci. Technol. 52(3), 148\u2013158 (2024).","journal-title":"Coal Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"8","key":"6745_CR23","first-page":"3546","volume":"49","author":"J Yan","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yan, J. et al. An comprehensive analysis of the hydraulic fracturing behavior of coalbed methane wells of Xishan coalfield and its revelation. J. China Coal Soc. 49(8), 3546\u20133560 (2024).","journal-title":"J. China Coal Soc."},{"issue":"S1","key":"6745_CR24","first-page":"83","volume":"36","author":"L Cai","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cai, L. et al. Hydraulic fracturing curve types of coal reservoirs in Zhengzhuang block, Qinshui Basin and their geological influence factors. Acta Petrol. Sin. 36(S1), 83\u201390 (2015).","journal-title":"Acta Petrol. Sin."},{"issue":"3","key":"6745_CR25","first-page":"65","volume":"48","author":"H Li","year":"2020","unstructured":"Li, H. et al. Fracturing parameters analysis and productivity evaluation of vertical coalbed methane wells with nitrogen foam. Coal Geol. Explor. 48(3), 65\u201374 (2020).","journal-title":"Coal Geol. Explor."},{"key":"6745_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2019.117003","volume":"265","author":"Q Hu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hu, Q. et al. Experimental investigation on crack competitive extension during hydraulic fracturing in coal measures strata. Fuel 265, 117003 (2020).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"6745_CR27","unstructured":"Ni, X., Zhao, Z., Liu, X., Liu, D. & Li, Z. Classes of fracturing curves and their formation mechanism under different combinations of coal structures and geostress. Energy Sources. 1\u201318 (2020)."},{"key":"6745_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.petrol.2020.107255","volume":"192","author":"S Lyu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lyu, S. et al. Natural fractures in soft coal seams and their effect on hydraulic fracture propagation: A field study. J. Petrol. Sci. Eng. 192, 107255 (2020).","journal-title":"J. Petrol. Sci. Eng."},{"issue":"12","key":"6745_CR29","first-page":"4006","volume":"45","author":"J Zhang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zhang, J. et al. Distribution law of underground in-situ stress field in Xishan coal mine field Shanxi Province. J. China Coal Soc. 45(12), 4006\u20134016 (2020).","journal-title":"J. China Coal Soc."},{"issue":"5","key":"6745_CR30","first-page":"2376","volume":"49","author":"Q An","year":"2023","unstructured":"An, Q. et al. Practice and understanding of deep coalbed methane massive hydraulic fracturing in Shenfu Block, Ordos Basin. J. China Coal Soc. 49(5), 2376\u20132393 (2023).","journal-title":"J. China Coal Soc."},{"key":"6745_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2024.131021","volume":"363","author":"J Yu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yu, J. et al. Experimental simulation of fracture propagation and extension in hydraulic fracturing: A state-of-the-art review. Fuel 363, 131021 (2024).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"6745_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.119368","volume":"286","author":"H Ramandi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ramandi, H., Pirzada, M., Saydam, A. C. & Roshan, H. Digital and experimental rock analysis of proppant injection into naturally fractured coal. Fuel 286, 119368 (2021).","journal-title":"Fuel"}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-06745-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-06745-9","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-06745-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]],"date-time":"2025-07-01T17:17:22Z","timestamp":1751390242000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-06745-9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["6745"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-06745-9","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"24 March 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"10 June 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 July 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"21440"}}