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This study compared their performance while observing the harbour porpoise (<jats:italic>Phocoena phocoena<\/jats:italic>) in the western Baltic Sea. The methods were used simultaneously providing information on location, behaviour and group size during a field campaign in 2022. Theodolite observers were able to detect surfacing positions during 80.5% of porpoise sightings while a drone collected data during 50.7% of total sightings detected by plain eye. The drone footage quality was poor during 47.3% of these sightings. An in-depth analysis of 75:36 h of good quality footage resulted in 16:55 h (22.4%) of cetacean appearance. The determination of group size was significantly more precise using drone footage while the theodolite was more accurate in determining the start\/end of a sighting. The accuracy of locations was modelled using the distance (D<jats:sub>t-d<\/jats:sub>) between recorded theodolite and drone coordinates of the same surfacing porpoise. D<jats:sub>t-d<\/jats:sub> varied significantly based on the point quality. Sea state and porpoise to theodolite observer distance did not influence D<jats:sub>t-d<\/jats:sub>. Both methods complement each other and should ideally be used simultaneously to obtain both accurate and detailed information on harbour porpoises and other marine mammals during land-based observation studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-06978-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,25]],"date-time":"2025-06-25T16:19:04Z","timestamp":1750868344000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Performance of theodolites versus drones in land-based studies of marine mammals"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Thaya Mirinda","family":"Dinkel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ang\u00e9lique","family":"Girard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tom","family":"B\u00e4r","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"D\u00e4hne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ann-Kristin","family":"Craul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mel","family":"Cosentino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ole","family":"Meyer-Klaeden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Flemming","family":"Dahlke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"von Dorrien","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"6978_CR1","unstructured":"ASCOBANS. 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