{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T13:58:29Z","timestamp":1777903109968,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":22,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,27]],"date-time":"2025-07-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753574400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,27]],"date-time":"2025-07-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753574400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Chengdu Medical Research Project","award":["2021242"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021242"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>This study aimed to create a visualized extreme gradient boosting (XGBOOST) model to distinguish prostatic carcinoma (PCA) from non-PCA using noninvasive prebiopsy parameters before biopsy. This was a cross-sectional study of 310 Chinese men who underwent prostate biopsy and were divided into PCA (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u2009126) and non-PCA (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\u2009=\u2009184) groups. The non-PCA patients were diagnosed with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) based on biopsy results. The XGBOOST model was used to analyze 15 noninvasive prebiopsy parameters. The model performance was assessed by the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) and compared with four other machine learning models (decision tree learning, lasso, neural network (NNET), and support vector machine (SVM)) and a logistic model. The logistic model identified serum thymidine kinase 1 (STK1p), total prostate-specific antigen (TPSA), and age as key prognostic factors. In the Lasso procedure, free prostate-specific antigen (FPSA) and free-to-total prostate-specific antigen (FTPSA) were also added to machine learning models. The XGBOOST model achieved an AUC of 0.965, which was significantly greater than those of other models (AUC\u2009=\u20090.708\u20130.817) and the logistic model (AUC\u2009=\u20090.813) (<jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\u2009&lt;\u20090.001). The 49 decision trees generated by the XGBOOST model were visualized to aid in decision making. This study successfully developed a visualized XGBOOST model with high accuracy in differentiating PCA from non-PCA using eight noninvasive predictors. This model could aid in the precise selection of high-risk PCA patients for biopsy, potentially minimizing unnecessary procedures and their associated costs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-12765-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,27]],"date-time":"2025-07-27T15:51:31Z","timestamp":1753631491000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["A visualized machine learning model using noninvasive parameters to differentiate men with and without prostatic carcinoma before biopsy"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Wenting","family":"Zhou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Linhui","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xue","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaohong","family":"Zou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xuemei","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Liru","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaolan","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shujing","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hong","family":"Lv","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuanfu","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaoyang","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,27]]},"reference":[{"issue":"3","key":"12765_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21660","volume":"71","author":"H Sung","year":"2021","unstructured":"Sung, H. et al. Global cancer statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J. Clin. 71 (3), 209\u2013249. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3322\/caac.21660 (2021).","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"12765_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"840787","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.840787","volume":"13","author":"F Licitra","year":"2022","unstructured":"Licitra, F. et al. New insights and emerging therapeutic approaches in prostate cancer. Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne). 13, 840787. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fendo.2022.840787 (2022).","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne)"},{"issue":"1","key":"12765_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.3760\/cma.j.cn112152-20211226-00975","volume":"44","author":"J He","year":"2022","unstructured":"He, J. et al. China guideline for the screening and early detection of prostate cancer. Zhonghua Zhong Liu Za Zhi. 44 (1), 29\u201353. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3760\/cma.j.cn112152-20211226-00975 (2022). (2022, Beijing).","journal-title":"Zhonghua Zhong Liu Za Zhi"},{"issue":"11","key":"12765_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.19401\/j.cnki.1007-3639.2020.11.005","volume":"30","author":"B Wang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wang, B., Sha, Y., He, F. & Jing, W. The application of prostate-specific antigen in prostate cancer early detection in Chinese population: a Meta-analysis. China Oncol. 30 (11), 879\u2013886. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.19401\/j.cnki.1007-3639.2020.11.005 (2020).","journal-title":"China Oncol."},{"issue":"1","key":"12765_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-021-02230-y","volume":"20","author":"S Merriel","year":"2022","unstructured":"Merriel, S. et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the diagnostic accuracy of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) for the detection of prostate cancer in symptomatic patients. BMC Med. 20 (1), 54. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12916-021-02230-y (2022).","journal-title":"BMC Med."},{"key":"12765_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Saatchi, M. et al. Diagnostic accuracy of predictive models in prostate cancer: A systematic review and Meta-Analysis. Prostate Cancer. 2022 (1742789). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2022\/1742789 (2022).","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/1742789"},{"issue":"4","key":"12765_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.1097\/JU.0000000000002183","volume":"206","author":"LB Lerner","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lerner, L. B. et al. Management of lower urinary tract symptoms attributed to benign prostatic hyperplasia: AUA GUIDELINE PART I-Initial Work-up and medical management. J. Urol. 206 (4), 806\u2013817. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/JU.0000000000002183 (2021).","journal-title":"J. Urol."},{"issue":"4","key":"12765_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejcb.2022.151280","volume":"101","author":"J Zhou","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhou, J. et al. Concentration of human thymidine kinase 1 discover invisible malignant human tumors. Eur. J. Cell. Biol. 101 (4), 151280. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ejcb.2022.151280 (2022).","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cell. Biol."},{"issue":"4","key":"12765_CR9","first-page":"1013","volume":"14","author":"Q He","year":"2005","unstructured":"He, Q. et al. Concentration of thymidine kinase 1 in serum (S-TK1) is a more sensitive proliferation marker in human solid tumors than its activity. Oncol. Rep. 14 (4), 1013\u20131019 (2005).","journal-title":"Oncol. Rep."},{"issue":"1","key":"12765_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2012.03.006","volume":"194","author":"H Sharif","year":"2012","unstructured":"Sharif, H. et al. A sensitive and kinetically defined radiochemical assay for canine and human serum thymidine kinase 1 (TK1) to monitor canine malignant lymphoma. Vet. J. 194 (1), 40\u201347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tvjl.2012.03.006 (2012).","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"issue":"5","key":"12765_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6171","DOI":"10.3892\/ol.2018.9345","volume":"16","author":"S Li","year":"2018","unstructured":"Li, S. et al. Serum thymidine kinase 1 is associated with Gleason score of patients with prostate carcinoma. Oncol. Lett. 16 (5), 6171\u20136180. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3892\/ol.2018.9345 (2018).","journal-title":"Oncol. Lett."},{"issue":"6","key":"12765_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.12822","volume":"284","author":"GS Handelman","year":"2018","unstructured":"Handelman, G. S. et al. eDoctor: machine learning and the future of medicine. J Intern. Med. J. Intern. Med. 284 (6), 603\u2013619. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/joim.12822 (2018).","journal-title":"J Intern. Med. J. Intern. Med."},{"issue":"4","key":"12765_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1675","DOI":"10.21873\/anticanres.16319","volume":"43","author":"J Rezac","year":"2023","unstructured":"Rezac, J. et al. Serum thymidine kinase 1 - Potential prostate cancer biomarker: A clinical study. Anticancer Res. 43 (4), 1675\u20131680. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21873\/anticanres.16319 (2023).","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"12765_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hanouskov\u00e1, L., \u0158ez\u00e1\u010d, J., Vesel\u00fd, \u0160., Pr\u016f\u0161a, R. & Kota\u0161ka, K. Thymidine Kinase-1 as additional diagnostic marker of prostate cancer. Clin. Lab. 66 (6). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7754\/Clin.Lab.2019.191026 (2020).","DOI":"10.7754\/Clin.Lab.2019.191026"},{"issue":"8","key":"12765_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.23791","volume":"79","author":"KK Jagarlamudi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Jagarlamudi, K. K. et al. The combination of AroCell TK 210 ELISA with prostate health index or prostate-specific antigen density can improve the ability to differentiate prostate cancer from noncancerous conditions. Prostate 79 (8), 856\u2013863. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/pros.23791 (2019).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"12765_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2019.04.016","volume":"172","author":"X Liu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Liu, X., Yu, C., Bi, Y. & Zhang, Z. J. Trends and age-period-cohort effect on incidence and mortality of prostate cancer from 1990 to 2017 in China. Public. Health. 172, 70\u201380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.puhe.2019.04.016 (2019).","journal-title":"Public. Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"12765_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.pcan.4500906","volume":"9","author":"Y Wang","year":"2006","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Sun, G., Pan, J. G., Guo, Z. J. & Li, T. Performance of tPSA and f\/tpsa for prostate cancer in chinese. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 9 (4), 374\u2013378. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/sj.pcan.4500906 (2006).","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis."},{"issue":"1","key":"12765_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.pcan.4500615","volume":"6","author":"M Falsaperla","year":"2003","unstructured":"Falsaperla, M. et al. Role of Ca 15\u2009\u2013\u20093 in patients with biochemically suspected prostate cancer and multiple negative ultrasound-guided prostate biopsies. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 6 (1), 45\u201349. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/sj.pcan.4500615 (2003).","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis."},{"issue":"1","key":"12765_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1186\/s13550-020-00640-2","volume":"10","author":"F Rosar","year":"2020","unstructured":"Rosar, F. et al. Neuron-specific enolase has potential value as a biomarker for [18F]FDG\/[68Ga]Ga-PSMA-11 PET mismatch findings in advanced mCRPC patients. EJNMMI Res. 10 (1), 52. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13550-020-00640-2 (2020).","journal-title":"EJNMMI Res."},{"issue":"13","key":"12765_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1264","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.24400","volume":"82","author":"AW Bray","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bray, A. W. et al. Elevated serum CEA is associated with liver metastasis and distinctive Circulating tumor DNA alterations in patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer. Prostate 82 (13), 1264\u20131272. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/pros.24400 (2022).","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"issue":"1","key":"12765_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.21037\/tau-23-319","volume":"13","author":"W Jiang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Jiang, W. et al. Machine learning algorithms being an auxiliary tool to predict the overall survival of patients with renal cell carcinoma using the SEER database. Transl Androl. Urol. 13 (1), 53\u201363. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21037\/tau-23-319 (2024).","journal-title":"Transl Androl. Urol."},{"issue":"4","key":"12765_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1038\/s41391-019-0149-y","volume":"22","author":"L Boesen","year":"2019","unstructured":"Boesen, L. et al. A predictive model based on biparametric magnetic resonance imaging and clinical parameters for improved risk assessment and selection of biopsy-na\u00efve men for prostate biopsies. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 22 (4), 609\u2013616. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41391-019-0149-y (2019).","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-12765-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-12765-2","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-12765-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,28]],"date-time":"2025-07-28T04:02:19Z","timestamp":1753675339000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-12765-2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,27]]},"references-count":22,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["12765"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-12765-2","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,27]]},"assertion":[{"value":"26 June 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 July 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"27 July 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}},{"value":"We followed a prospectively defined protocol approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of First People\u2019s Hospital of Longquanyi District, Chengdu (No. AF-KY-2021002). The Medical Ethics Committee of First People\u2019s Hospital of Longquanyi District, Chengdu waived the requirement to obtain informed consent for inclusion in this analysis.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval"}}],"article-number":"27357"}}