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However, their sustainability is increasingly threatened by insecticide resistance. While insecticide and pesticide use are known resistance drivers, the role of environmental contaminants remains underexplored. This study investigated the impact of environmental contaminants on insecticide resistance by sampling\n                    <jats:italic>Anopheles<\/jats:italic>\n                    larvae from six sites in Ghana, including petroleum spill sites, mining areas and industrial zones. WHO bioassays revealed resistance to clothianidin (Mortality rate (MR)\u2009=\u200954% \u2013 80%) and chlorfenapyr (MR\u2009=\u200980% \u2212\u200984%) in all site categories. Interestingly, high-intensity resistance to pirimiphos methyl (MR\u2009=\u200910x\u2009=\u20091.7%) was detected in vectors from Obuasi. High-intensity pyrethroid resistance [deltamethrin (MR\u2009=\u200910x\u2009=\u200979\u201392%); permethrin (MR\u2009=\u200910x\u2009=\u200974\u201395%)] was observed across all sites, with varying frequencies of\n                    <jats:italic>kdr<\/jats:italic>\n                    mutations (\n                    <jats:italic>L995F<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>V402L<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>I1527T<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>P1874L<\/jats:italic>\n                    ; 0.12\u20130.98) were observed across all sites. High allele frequency of Ace-1 (0.62) was observed in Obuasi. Chemical analyses of water from breeding habitats revealed significant associations between heavy metals and insecticide resistance (\n                    <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20090.04).\n                    <jats:italic>Anopheles coluzzii<\/jats:italic>\n                    (81.7%) was the dominant species across all sites. These findings provide evidence that environmental contaminants may contribute to insecticide resistance. There is an urgent need for enhanced surveillance and resistance management strategies for effective malaria vector control.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-14239-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,1]],"date-time":"2025-09-01T14:05:49Z","timestamp":1756735549000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Environmental contaminants drive insecticide resistance in Anopheles mosquitoes in Ghana"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Christopher Mfum","family":"Owusu-Asenso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isaac Kwame","family":"Sraku","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nana Aba Setorwu","family":"Eyeson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anisa","family":"Abdulai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdul Rahim Mohammed","family":"Sabtiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simon Kwaku","family":"Attah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fred","family":"Aboagye-Antwi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yaw Asare","family":"Afrane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"14239_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e100","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(21)00296-5","volume":"6","author":"E Sherrard-Smith","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sherrard-Smith, E. et al. 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All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations, including the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki for medical research. Meetings were held at each study site with chiefs, community leaders, and residents to introduce the research. Permission to conduct the study at the various sites was obtained from community leaders. Verbal informed consent was obtained from community leaders and residents for mosquito sampling activities.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent to publish"}}],"article-number":"32201"}}