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However, a detailed catalog of the olfactory genes in mosquitoes has remained elusive\u2014until now. In this study, we compiled the olfactory genes catalog for four key malaria vectors: two major Indian species,\n                    <jats:italic>Anopheles stephensi<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>Anopheles culicifacies<\/jats:italic>\n                    , along with two African species,\n                    <jats:italic>Anopheles gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>Anopheles funestus<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Using an extensive genome-wide approach, we uncovered crucial carrier proteins like odorant binding proteins (\n                    <jats:italic>OBPs<\/jats:italic>\n                    ), chemosensory proteins (\n                    <jats:italic>CSPs<\/jats:italic>\n                    ), and several receptors, including odorant receptors (\n                    <jats:italic>ORs<\/jats:italic>\n                    ), ionotropic receptors (\n                    <jats:italic>IRs<\/jats:italic>\n                    ), and gustatory receptors (\n                    <jats:italic>GusRs<\/jats:italic>\n                    ). A particularly striking discovery was the significantly higher number of\n                    <jats:italic>OBP<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>OR<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and\n                    <jats:italic>IR<\/jats:italic>\n                    genes in African malaria vectors compared to their Indian counterparts, hinting at the gene gain and functional diversification in these species. The invasive\n                    <jats:italic>A. stephensi<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2014which has spread from Asia to Africa\u2014showed closer genetic ties to\n                    <jats:italic>A. minimus<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>A. gambiae<\/jats:italic>\n                    than to\n                    <jats:italic>A. culicifacies<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Furthermore, when examining the expression of\n                    <jats:italic>CSPs<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>SAPs<\/jats:italic>\n                    in the larval stage of\n                    <jats:italic>A. stephensi<\/jats:italic>\n                    , we found that pyrethroid-resistant mosquito larvae exhibited elevated expression of\n                    <jats:italic>SAP2<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>SAP3<\/jats:italic>\n                    , providing new evidence of their potential role in insecticide resistance. This study not only sheds light on the genetic basis of mosquito olfaction but also offers crucial insights into how these genes are linked to different physiological functions, paving the way for improved malaria control strategies.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-21404-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]],"date-time":"2025-10-28T14:57:59Z","timestamp":1761663479000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Olfactory gene dynamics in invasive Indian and non-invasive African malaria vectors at the crossroads of development, infection and resistance"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Arvind","family":"Sharma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bhuvan","family":"Dixit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bharti","family":"Goyal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Renuka","family":"Harit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jatin","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shibani","family":"Biswas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ritu","family":"Goswami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kailash C.","family":"Pandey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"S. 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