{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T01:18:59Z","timestamp":1792113539198,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762819200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762819200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-23338-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T18:30:16Z","timestamp":1762885816000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["An investigation of critical parameters on spontaneous combustion for lithium-ion battery using bifurcation theory"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Heyu","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yue","family":"Chan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"23338_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1682-5","volume":"575","author":"G Harper","year":"2019","unstructured":"Harper, G. et al. Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles. Nature 575, 75\u201386. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41586-019-1682-5 (2019).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"23338_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-7753(00)00402-X","volume":"90","author":"B Kennedy","year":"2000","unstructured":"Kennedy, B., Patterson, D. & Camilleri, S. Use of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles. J. Power Sources. 90, 156\u2013162. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0378-7753(00)00402-X (2000).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"23338_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s41918-019-00060-4","volume":"3","author":"J Duan","year":"2000","unstructured":"Duan, J. et al. Building safe lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles: a review. Electrochem. Energy Rev. 3, 1\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s41918-019-00060-4 (2000).","journal-title":"Electrochem. Energy Rev."},{"key":"23338_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecmx.2022.100310","volume":"16","author":"S Shahid","year":"2022","unstructured":"Shahid, S. et al. A review of thermal runaway prevention and mitigation strategies for lithium-ion batteries. Energy Convers. Manag X. 16, 100310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ecmx.2022.100310 (2022).","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag X"},{"key":"23338_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"148450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2023.148450","volume":"481","author":"X Hu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hu, X. et al. Advancements in the safety of Lithium-Ion battery: the trigger, consequence and mitigation method of thermal runaway. Chem. Eng. J. 481, 148450. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cej.2023.148450 (2024).","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"23338_CR6","unstructured":"EV FireSafe. Electric vehicles: EV FireSafe global battery fire data (2010\u20132023). EV FireSafe. (2025). Available at: https:\/\/www.evfiresafe.com\/ev-battery-fire-data (2025)."},{"key":"23338_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22082","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-49399-1","volume":"13","author":"H Nozaki","year":"2023","unstructured":"Nozaki, H. et al. In situ neutron imaging of lithium-ion batteries during heating to thermal runaway. Sci. Rep. 13, 22082. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-023-49399-1 (2023).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"23338_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24004","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-07824-7","volume":"15","author":"OS Mahdy","year":"2025","unstructured":"Mahdy, O. S. et al. Quantitative evaluation of thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries under critical heating conditions to enhance safety. Sci. Rep. 15, 24004. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-07824-7 (2025).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"23338_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.02.038","volume":"208","author":"Q Wang","year":"2012","unstructured":"Wang, Q. et al. Thermal runaway caused fire and explosion of lithium ion battery. J. Power Sources. 208, 210\u2013224. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.02.038 (2012).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"issue":"11","key":"23338_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2428687","volume":"105","author":"JM Sherfey","year":"1958","unstructured":"Sherfey, J. M. & Brenner, A. Electrochemical calorimetry. J. Electrochem. Soc. 105 (11), 665\u2013672. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1149\/1.2428687 (1958).","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"issue":"2","key":"23338_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-7480(69)90103-X","volume":"9","author":"S Gross","year":"1969","unstructured":"Gross, S. Heat generation in sealed batteries. Energy Convers. 9 (2), 55\u201362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0013-7480(69)90103-X (1969).","journal-title":"Energy Convers."},{"issue":"3","key":"23338_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2131448","volume":"125","author":"HF Gibbard","year":"1978","unstructured":"Gibbard, H. F. Thermal properties of battery systems. J. Electrochem. Soc. 125 (3), 353\u2013358. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1149\/1.2131448 (1978).","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"23338_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1526","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2221597","volume":"140","author":"M Doyle","year":"1993","unstructured":"Doyle, M., Fuller, T. F. & Newman, J. Modeling of galvanostatic charge and discharge of the lithium\/polymer\/insertion cell. J. Electrochem. Soc. 140, 1526\u20131533. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1149\/1.2221597 (1993).","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"23338_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2054684","volume":"141","author":"TF Fuller","year":"1994","unstructured":"Fuller, T. F., Doyle, M. & Newman, J. Simulation and optimization of the dual lithium ion insertion cell. J. Electrochem. Soc. 141, 1\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1149\/1.2054684 (1994).","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"23338_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1890","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1836921","volume":"143","author":"M Doyle","year":"1996","unstructured":"Doyle, M. & Newman, J. Comparison of the modeling predictions with experimental data from plastic lithium ion cells. J. Electrochem. Soc. 143, 1890\u20131903. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1149\/1.1836921 (1996).","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"23338_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1002\/aic.690210103","volume":"21","author":"J Newman","year":"1975","unstructured":"Newman, J. & Tiedemann, W. Porous-electrode theory with battery applications. AIChE J. 21, 25\u201341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/aic.690210103 (1975).","journal-title":"AIChE J."},{"key":"23338_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2044130","volume":"142","author":"J Newman","year":"1995","unstructured":"Newman, J. & Tiedemann, W. Temperature rise in a battery module with constant heat generation. J. Electrochem. Soc. 142, 1054\u20131057. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1149\/1.2044130 (1995).","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"23338_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3274","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2049974","volume":"142","author":"CR Pals","year":"1995","unstructured":"Pals, C. R. & Newman, J. Thermal modeling of lithium\/polymer battery, I. Discharge behavior of a single cell. J. Electrochem. Soc. 142, 3274\u20133281. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1149\/1.2049974 (1995).","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"23338_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3282","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2049975","volume":"142","author":"CR Pals","year":"1995","unstructured":"Pals, C. R. & Newman, J. Thermal modeling of lithium\/polymer battery, II. Temperature profiles in a cell stack. J. Electrochem. Soc. 142, 3282\u20133288. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1149\/1.2049975 (1995).","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"23338_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-7753(99)00178-0","volume":"83","author":"S Al Hallaj","year":"1999","unstructured":"Al Hallaj, S., Maleki, H., Hong, J. S. & Selman, J. R. Thermal modeling and design considerations of lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources. 83, 1\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0378-7753(99)00178-0 (1999).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"23338_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2004.05.064","volume":"140","author":"SC Chen","year":"2005","unstructured":"Chen, S. C., Wan, C. C. & Wang, Y. Y. Thermal analysis of lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources. 140, 111\u2013124. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2004.05.064 (2005).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"23338_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2006.12.012","volume":"48","author":"Y Inui","year":"2007","unstructured":"Inui, Y., Kobayashi, Y., Watanabe, Y., Watase, Y. & Kitamura, Y. Simulation of temperature distribution in cylindrical and prismatic lithium ion secondary batteries. Energy Convers. Manag. 48, 2103\u20132109. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.enconman.2006.12.012 (2007).","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag"},{"key":"23338_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.09.035","volume":"223","author":"C Zhu","year":"2013","unstructured":"Zhu, C., Li, X., Song, L. & Xiang, L. Development of the theoretically based thermal model for lithium ion battery pack. J. Power Sources. 223, 155\u2013164. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.09.035 (2013).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"23338_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.19026\/rjaset.7.221","volume":"7","author":"J Hu","year":"2014","unstructured":"Hu, J., Tao, L. & Jing, L. Temperature field analysis and thermal dissipation structure optimization of lithium-ion battery pack in PEVs. Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. 7, 62\u201371. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.19026\/rjaset.7.221 (2014).","journal-title":"Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol."},{"issue":"8","key":"23338_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2910","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1393625","volume":"147","author":"WB Gu","year":"2000","unstructured":"Gu, W. B. & Wang, C. Y. Thermal-electrochemical modeling of battery systems. J. Electrochem. Soc. 147 (8), 2910\u20132922. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1149\/1.1393625 (2000).","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"23338_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-7753(02)00199-4","volume":"110","author":"CY Wang","year":"2002","unstructured":"Wang, C. Y. & Srinivasan, V. Computational battery dynamics (CBD)\u2013electrochemical\/thermal coupled modeling and multi-scale modeling. J. Power Sources. 110, 364\u2013376. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0378-7753(02)00199-4 (2002).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"issue":"2","key":"23338_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"A164","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2817888","volume":"155","author":"K Kumaresan","year":"2008","unstructured":"Kumaresan, K., Sikha, G. & White, R. E. Thermal model for a Li-ion cell. J. Electrochem. Soc. 155 (2), A164\u2013A171. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1149\/1.2817888 (2008).","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"23338_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5985","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2011.03.017","volume":"196","author":"L Cai","year":"2011","unstructured":"Cai, L. & White, R. E. Mathematical modeling of lithium ion battery with thermal effects in COMSOL Inc. Multiphysics (MP) software. J. Power Sources. 196, 5985\u20135989. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2011.03.017 (2011).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"issue":"1","key":"23338_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"A98","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1526512","volume":"150","author":"V Srinivasan","year":"2003","unstructured":"Srinivasan, V. & Wang, C. Y. Analysis of electrochemical and thermal behavior of Li-ion cells. J. Electrochem. Soc. 150 (1), A98\u2013A106. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1149\/1.1526512 (2003).","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"issue":"2","key":"23338_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2007.09.054","volume":"180","author":"US Kim","year":"2008","unstructured":"Kim, U. S., Shin, C. B. & Kim, C. S. Effect of electrode configuration on the thermal behavior of a lithium-polymer battery. J. Power Sources. 180 (2), 909\u2013916. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2007.09.054 (2008).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"issue":"1","key":"23338_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2008.10.019","volume":"189","author":"US Kim","year":"2009","unstructured":"Kim, U. S., Shin, C. B. & Kim, C. S. Modeling for the scale-up of a lithium-ion polymer battery. J. Power Sources. 189 (1), 841\u2013846. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2008.10.019 (2009).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"issue":"11","key":"23338_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2011.01.103","volume":"196","author":"US Kim","year":"2011","unstructured":"Kim, U. S., Yi, J., Shin, C. B., Han, T. & Park, S. Modelling the thermal behaviour of a lithium-ion battery during charge. J. Power Sources. 196 (11), 5115\u20135121. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2011.01.103 (2011).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"issue":"1","key":"23338_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-7753(02)00488-3","volume":"113","author":"R Spotnitz","year":"2003","unstructured":"Spotnitz, R. & Franklin, J. Abuse behavior of high-power, lithium-ion cells. J. Power Sources. 113 (1), 81\u2013100. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0378-7753(02)00488-3 (2003).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"23338_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2013.10.004","volume":"248","author":"W Fang","year":"2014","unstructured":"Fang, W., Ramadass, P. & Zhang, Z. J. Study of internal short in a Li-ion cell-II. Numerical investigation using a 3D electrochemical thermal model. J. Power Sources. 248, 1090\u20131098. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2013.10.004 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"issue":"1","key":"23338_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2004.05.011","volume":"136","author":"T Yamauchi","year":"2004","unstructured":"Yamauchi, T., Mizushima, K., Satoh, Y. & Yamada, S. Development of a simulator for both property and safety of a lithium secondary battery. J. Power Sources. 136 (1), 99\u2013107. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2004.05.011 (2004).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"issue":"10","key":"23338_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3543","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1392512","volume":"146","author":"P Arora","year":"1999","unstructured":"Arora, P., Doyle, M. & White, R. E. Mathematical modeling of the lithium deposition overcharge reaction in lithium-ion batteries using carbon-based negative electrodes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 146 (10), 3543\u20133553. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1149\/1.1392512 (1999).","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"23338_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.03.003","volume":"209","author":"RD Perkins","year":"2012","unstructured":"Perkins, R. D., Randall, A. V., Zhang, X. & Plett, G. L. Controls oriented reduced order modeling of lithium deposition on overcharge. J. Power Sources. 209, 318\u2013325. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.03.003 (2012).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"issue":"1","key":"23338_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"A207","DOI":"10.1149\/2.1071501jes","volume":"162","author":"W Zhao","year":"2015","unstructured":"Zhao, W., Luo, G. & Wang, C. Y. Modeling nail penetration process in large-format Li-ion cells. J. Electrochem. Soc. 162 (1), A207\u2013A217. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1149\/2.1071501jes (2015).","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"23338_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.07.057","volume":"220","author":"E Sahraei","year":"2012","unstructured":"Sahraei, E., Campbell, J. & Wierzbicki, T. Modeling and short circuit detection of 18650 Li-ion cells under mechanical abuse conditions. J. Power Sources. 220, 360\u2013372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.07.057 (2012).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"23338_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"A755","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1377592","volume":"148","author":"TD Hatchard","year":"2001","unstructured":"Hatchard, T. D., MacNeil, D. D., Basu, A. & Dahn, J. R. Thermal model of cylindrical and prismatic lithium-ion cells. J. Electrochem. Soc. 148, A755\u2013A761. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1149\/1.1377592 (2001).","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"23338_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2007.04.018","volume":"170","author":"GH Kim","year":"2007","unstructured":"Kim, G. H., Pesaran, A. & Spotnitz, R. A three-dimensional thermal abuse model for lithium-ion cells. J. Power Sources. 170, 476\u2013489. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2007.04.018 (2007).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"23338_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Fulford, G. R. & Broadbridge, P. Industrial Mathematics: Case Studies in the Diffusion of Heat and Matter (Cambridge University Press, 2002). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/CBO9780511613210","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511613210"},{"key":"23338_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429492563","author":"SH Strogatz","year":"2015","unstructured":"Strogatz, S. H. Nonlinear dynamics and chaos: with applications to Physics, Biology, chemistry and engineering. CRC Press. (an Impr. Taylor Francis Group). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1201\/9780429492563 (2015).","journal-title":"CRC Press. (an Impr. Taylor Francis Group)"},{"key":"23338_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.3390\/en9040292","volume":"9","author":"A Melcher","year":"2016","unstructured":"Melcher, A., Ziebert, C., Rohde, M. & Seifert, H. J. Modeling and simulation of the thermal runaway behavior of cylindrical li-ion cells-computing of critical parameters. Energies 9, 292. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en9040292 (2016).","journal-title":"Energies"},{"key":"23338_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bebernes, J. & Eberly, D. Mathematical Problems from Combustion Theory; Applied Mathematical Sciences Volume 83 (Springer, 1989). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-1-4612-4546-9","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-4546-9"},{"key":"23338_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Volpert, V. Elliptic Partial Differential Equations, Volume 2: reactions-diffusion Equations (Birkh\u00e4user, 2014). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-0348-0813-2","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-0348-0813-2"},{"key":"23338_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Frank-Kamenetskii, D. A. Diffusion and Heat Transfer in Chemical Kinetics (Plenum, 1969). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/9781400877195","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400877195"},{"key":"23338_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2014.02.079","volume":"259","author":"J Zhang","year":"2014","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Wu, B. & Huang, J. Simultaneous Estimation of thermal parameter for large-format laminated lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources. 259, 106\u2013116. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2014.02.079 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"23338_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2013.11.107","volume":"252","author":"SJ Drake","year":"2014","unstructured":"Drake, S. J. et al. Measurement of anisotropic thermophysical properties of cylindrical Li-ion cells. J. Power Sources. 252, 298\u2013304. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2013.11.107 (2014).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"23338_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.3969\/j.issn.0438-1157.2014.02.040","volume":"65","author":"P Peng","year":"2014","unstructured":"Peng, P., Sun, Y. & Jiang, F. Numerical simulations and thermal behavior analysis for oven thermal abusing of LiCoO2 lithium-ion battery. CIESC J. 65, 647\u2013657. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3969\/j.issn.0438-1157.2014.02.040 (2014).","journal-title":"CIESC J."},{"key":"23338_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2006.04.088","volume":"161","author":"DP Abraham","year":"2006","unstructured":"Abraham, D. P. et al. Diagnostic examination of thermally abused high-power lithium-ion cells. J. Power Sources. 161, 648\u2013657. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2006.04.088 (2006).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"23338_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1007\/s00231-014-1353-x","volume":"50","author":"P Peng","year":"2014","unstructured":"Peng, P., Sun, Y. & Jiang, F. Thermal analyses of LiCoO2 lithium-ion battery during oven tests. Heat. Mass. Transf. 50, 1405\u20131416. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00231-014-1353-x (2014).","journal-title":"Heat. Mass. Transf."},{"key":"23338_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2011.06.022","volume":"89","author":"D Lisbona","year":"2011","unstructured":"Lisbona, D. & Snee, T. A review of hazards associated with primary lithium and lithium-ion batteries. Process. Saf. Environ. Protect. 89, 434\u2013442. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.psep.2011.06.022 (2011).","journal-title":"Process. Saf. Environ. Protect"},{"key":"23338_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2015.12.088","volume":"307","author":"PT Coman","year":"2016","unstructured":"Coman, P. T., Rayman, S. & White, R. E. A lumped model of venting during thermal runaway in a cylindrical lithium Cobalt oxide lithium-ion cell. J. Power Sources. 307, 56\u201362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2015.12.088 (2016).","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"23338_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2017.08.016","volume":"150","author":"H Liu","year":"2017","unstructured":"Liu, H., Wei, Z., He, W. & Zhao, J. Thermal issues about Li-ion batteries and recent progress in battery thermal management systems: A review. Energy Convers. Manag. 150, 304\u2013330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.enconman.2017.08.016 (2017).","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag"},{"key":"23338_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01340021","volume":"48","author":"NN Semenoff","year":"1928","unstructured":"Semenoff, N. N. Zur theorie des verbrennungsprozesses. Z. Phys. Hadron Nucl. 48, 571\u2013582. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/BF01340021 (1928).","journal-title":"Z. Phys. Hadron Nucl."},{"key":"23338_CR57","unstructured":"Math Works, I. M. A. T. L. A. B., Version, R. & MathWorks, I. Natick, MA, USA. (2023). https:\/\/www.mathworks.com\/ (2023)."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23338-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23338-8","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23338-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T18:30:17Z","timestamp":1762885817000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23338-8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["23338"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-23338-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"12 August 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 October 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 November 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"39532"}}