{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T21:54:11Z","timestamp":1787003651200,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762992000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762992000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sci Rep"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Mudstone, which is a representative weak rock mass, often experiences mechanical deterioration because of repeated stress disturbances in underground engineering. This study elucidates the mechanical and acoustic emission (AE) characteristics of damaged mudstone. Cylindrical mudstone samples with damage levels corresponding to 0%, 20%, 40%, and 60% uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) were prepared and tested under uniaxial compression with real-time AE monitoring. The results reveal that the peak strength decreased with increasing damage level, whereas the elastic modulus decreased from 4.861 to 3.871 GPa. An accelerated reduction in both the peak strength and elastic modulus occurred at damage levels of 40% and 60% UCS, corresponding to a transition from slow microcrack initiation to localized crack coalescence. Energy analysis revealed that the energy inflection point appeared earlier with increasing predamage level. Both the total input energy and elastic strain energy before the peak decreased significantly, whereas the proportion of dissipated energy increased from 13.45 to 55.42%. The highly damaged mudstone exhibited step-like surges, indicating cascading crack-cluster propagation and shear\u2012slip localization. In terms of the AE behavior, higher predamage levels resulted in earlier activation of the AE counts and more distinct multistage bursts before the peak. AE analysis indicated that while tensile failure was dominant, the proportion of shear failure increased from 21.36 to 35.10% with increasing damage level, as indicated by a decrease in the wave velocity and a shift in the AE parameters. Moreover, the increased microcrack density and bedding plane weakness resulted in an increase in the shear failure percentage. Furthermore, the AE b value decreased from 1.089 to 0.680, and the AE S value increased from 0.202 to 0.281, confirming a shift from distributed small-scale cracking to a concentrated, large-scale fracture. These findings provide crucial quantitative insights into the mechanical degradation of damaged mudstone and valuable AE-based precursors for failure, which have important implications for hazard prediction in engineering practices involving mudstone.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-23550-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T22:26:21Z","timestamp":1763072781000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Mechanical response and acoustic emission characteristics of damaged mudstone"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Peng","family":"Di","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"23550_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.3390\/fractalfract9020083","volume":"9","author":"XY Chang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Chang, X. Y., Liang, Y. P. & Ran, Q. C. Mechanical response of mudstone based on acoustic emission fractal features. Fractal Fract. 9, 83. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fractalfract9020083 (2025).","journal-title":"Fractal Fract."},{"key":"23550_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0276577","volume":"37","author":"JJ Zhao","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zhao, J. J. et al. Microscopic mechanism of wettability alteration at the coal-water-CO2 interface under extreme conditions. Phys. Fluids 37, 072020. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0276577 (2025).","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"23550_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2025.143283","volume":"494","author":"QL Zou","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zou, Q. L. et al. Effect of particle size and dosage on hydration kinetics of nano-alumina-modified cement. Constr. Build. Mater. 494, 143283. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2025.143283 (2025).","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"23550_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0253229","volume":"37","author":"JJ Zhao","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zhao, J. J. et al. Effect of silica nanofluid on coal wettability and its stability characterization. Phys. Fluids 37, 022015. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0253229 (2025).","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"23550_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1333686","DOI":"10.3389\/fenrg.2024.1333686","volume":"12","author":"YP Liang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Liang, Y. P., Sun, W. J., Wu, Z. P., Mao, S. R. & Ran, Q. C. Effect of disturbed coal pore structure on gas adsorption characteristics: Mercury intrusion porosimetry. Front. Energy Res. 12, 1333686. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fenrg.2024.1333686 (2024).","journal-title":"Front. Energy Res."},{"key":"23550_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1007\/s11629-022-7630-0","volume":"20","author":"YY He","year":"2023","unstructured":"He, Y. Y. et al. Constitutive model for Ya\u2019an mudstone based on mesoscopic breakage mechanism. J. Mt. Sci. 20, 1159\u20131169. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11629-022-7630-0 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Mt. Sci."},{"key":"23550_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15364","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-65024-1","volume":"14","author":"JP Zou","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zou, J. P. et al. Experimental study on the mechanical characteristics of weakly cemented mudstone under different loading rates. Sci. Rep-Uk 14, 15364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-024-65024-1 (2024).","journal-title":"Sci. Rep-Uk"},{"key":"23550_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0260321","volume":"37","author":"YP Liang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Liang, Y. P. et al. Characteristics of overburden fracture conductivity in the shallow buried close coal seam group and its effect on low-oxygen phenomena. Phys. Fluids 37, 047103. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0260321 (2025).","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"23550_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0273416","volume":"37","author":"JJ Zhao","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zhao, J. J. et al. Mechanism of water adsorption and penetration at the coal interface under methane pressure and temperature. Phys. Fluids 37, 062018. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0273416 (2025).","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"23550_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.13199\/j.cnki.cst.mcq2022-1325","volume":"51","author":"DL Sun","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sun, D. L., Liang, Y. P., Huang, X. C. & Ran, Q. C. Progress and prospects of coalbed methane development and utilization in coal mining areas with large dip angle and multiple coal groups in Xinjiang. Coal Sci. Technol. 51, 161\u2013171. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13199\/j.cnki.cst.mcq2022-1325 (2023).","journal-title":"Coal Sci. Technol."},{"key":"23550_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2025.106191","volume":"194","author":"TC Zhang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zhang, T. C. et al. Impact of gas adsorption on coal relative permeability: a laboratory study. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 194, 106191. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2025.106191 (2025).","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"23550_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tafmec.2023.104094","volume":"127","author":"K Huang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Huang, K. et al. Mechanical behavior and fracture mechanism of red-bed mudstone under varied dry-wet cycling and prefabricated fracture planes with different loading angles. Theoret. Appl. Fract. Mech. 127, 104094. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tafmec.2023.104094 (2023).","journal-title":"Theoret. Appl. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"23550_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2896","DOI":"10.3390\/en16062896","volume":"16","author":"XY Sun","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sun, X. Y., Ran, Q. C., Liu, H., Ning, Y. H. & Ma, T. F. Characteristics of stress-displacement-fracture multi-field evolution around gas extraction borehole. Energies 16, 2896. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/en16062896 (2023).","journal-title":"Energies"},{"key":"23550_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfin.2025.107770","volume":"75","author":"JJ Zhao","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zhao, J. J. et al. Wettability of the coal\u2013water\u2013Ar interface under coupled temperature and pressure conditions. Surf. Interfaces\u00a075, 107770. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.surfin.2025.107770 (2025).","journal-title":"Surf. Interfaces"},{"key":"23550_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ces.2025.122131","volume":"318","author":"JJ Zhao","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zhao, J. J. et al. New insights from molecular dynamic simulation on coal-water interface wettability. Chem. Eng. Sci. 318, 122131. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ces.2025.122131 (2025).","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"23550_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2024.108105","volume":"160","author":"RH Moghaddam","year":"2024","unstructured":"Moghaddam, R. H. & Golshani, A. Fatigue behavior investigation of artificial rock under cyclic loading by using discrete element method. Eng. Fail. Anal. 160, 108105. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2024.108105 (2024).","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"23550_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrmge.2023.09.005","volume":"16","author":"LJ Gu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gu, L. J., Feng, X. T., Kong, R., Yang, C. X. & Xia, Y. L. Evolution of mechanical parameters of Shuangjiangkou granite under different loading cycles and stress paths. J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 16, 1113\u20131126. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jrmge.2023.09.005 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"23550_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2024.105746","volume":"177","author":"H Tan","year":"2024","unstructured":"Tan, H., Song, Y. J., Yang, H. M. & Che, Y. X. Energy evolution and strain localization in fractured sandstone under freeze-thaw cycling and uniaxial loading-unloading. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 177, 105746. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2024.105746 (2024).","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"23550_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4971","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrmge.2023.12.019","volume":"16","author":"ZH Cui","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cui, Z. H. et al. Dynamic fracture properties and criterion of cyclic freeze-thaw treated granite subjected to mixed-mode loading. J. Rock Mech. Geotechn. Eng. 16, 4971\u20134989. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jrmge.2023.12.019 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Rock Mech. Geotechn. Eng."},{"key":"23550_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2024.106006","volume":"186","author":"QC Ran","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ran, Q. C. et al. Deterioration mechanisms of coal mechanical properties under uniaxial multi-level cyclic loading considering initial damage effects. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 186, 106006. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2024.106006 (2025).","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"23550_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-024-03911-7","volume":"83","author":"J Zhu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhu, J. et al. Fracturing and acoustic emission characteristics of saturated reservoir rocks under constant-amplitude-cyclic loading. Bull. Eng. Geol. Env. 83, 417. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10064-024-03911-7 (2024).","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Env."},{"key":"23550_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"714","DOI":"10.3390\/fractalfract8120714","volume":"8","author":"QH Zhang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhang, Q. H., Meng, X. R. & Zhao, G. M. Energy evolution and fractal characteristics of sandstones under true triaxial cyclic loading and unloading. Fractal Fract. 8, 714. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/fractalfract8120714 (2024).","journal-title":"Fractal Fract."},{"key":"23550_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-023-03170-y","volume":"82","author":"CF Ye","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ye, C. F., Xie, H. P., Wu, F. & Li, C. B. Study on the nonlinear time-dependent deformation characteristics and viscoelastic-plastic model of shale under direct shear loading path. Bull. Eng. Geol. Env. 82, 189. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10064-023-03170-y (2023).","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Env."},{"key":"23550_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2024.108860","volume":"166","author":"YC Chen","year":"2024","unstructured":"Chen, Y. C., Zhao, Z. K. & Guo, J. Precursors of rock failure under cyclic loading and unloading: From the perspective of energy and acoustics. Eng. Fail. Anal. 166, 108860. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2024.108860 (2024).","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"23550_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2024.110059","volume":"302","author":"H Wang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wang, H., Fall, M., Miao, S. J., Yu, S. B. & Shang, X. F. Cyclic loading effects on the strength and fatigue properties of argillaceous siltstone across various characteristic stress intervals. Eng. Fract. Mech. 302, 110059. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2024.110059 (2024).","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"23550_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2024.105786","volume":"179","author":"B Fu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Fu, B., Li, Y. C., Tang, C. A., Ji, Y. L. & Zang, A. R. A micromechanical analysis of marble pulverization under quasi-static progressive cyclic loading. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 179, 105786. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2024.105786 (2024).","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"23550_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-025-04169-3","volume":"84","author":"SN Li","year":"2025","unstructured":"Li, S. N. et al. Quantitative calculation of the damage of carbonaceous mudstone during uniaxial compressive failure process under dry-wet cycling. Bull. Eng. Geol. Env. 84, 190. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10064-025-04169-3 (2025).","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Env."},{"key":"23550_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2467","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-019-01693-x","volume":"79","author":"QS Zheng","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zheng, Q. S., Liu, E. L., Yu, D. & Liu, M. X. Fatigue and damage properties of non-consecutive jointed mudstone samples subjected to cyclic triaxial loading. Bull. Eng. Geol. Env. 79, 2467\u20132481. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10064-019-01693-x (2020).","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Env."},{"key":"23550_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.16285\/j.rsm.2020.0846","volume":"42","author":"FL Li","year":"2021","unstructured":"Li, F. L., Yang, J., Liu, W. Q., Fan, Z. H. & Yang, Y. G. Effect of loading rate change on the mechanical properties of mudstone under uniaxial compression. Rock Soil Mech. 42, 369\u2013378. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.16285\/j.rsm.2020.0846 (2021).","journal-title":"Rock Soil Mech."},{"key":"23550_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3204","DOI":"10.1111\/ffe.14353","volume":"47","author":"DX Zhang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhang, D. X. et al. Experimental study on the bearing mechanical characteristics and deformation failure mechanism of damaged sandy mudstone. Fatigue Fract. Eng. M 47, 3204\u20133219. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ffe.14353 (2024).","journal-title":"Fatigue Fract. Eng. M"},{"key":"23550_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0278924","volume":"37","author":"CB Li","year":"2025","unstructured":"Li, C. B., Chen, H. J., Ye, C. F., Feng, Z. C. & Ran, Q. C. Acoustic emission spatiotemporal evolution and multifractal spectrum of sandstone under the coupled effects of wet-dry cycles and cyclic loading. Phys. Fluids 37, 087107. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0278924 (2025).","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"23550_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2024.105941","volume":"183","author":"CF Ye","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ye, C. F. et al. Asymmetric failure mechanisms of anisotropic shale under direct shear. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 183, 105941. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2024.105941 (2024).","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"23550_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-023-03123-5","volume":"82","author":"SY Li","year":"2023","unstructured":"Li, S. Y., Wang, Z. L., Wang, J. G., Yang, J. Q. & Lu, Z. T. Analysis on mechanical behavior and progressive failure of deep-buried marble based on complete stress-strain curves. Bull. Eng. Geol. Env. 82, 133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10064-023-03123-5 (2023).","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Env."},{"key":"23550_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2024.115088","volume":"236","author":"XG Kong","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kong, X. G. et al. Time-varying characteristics of acoustic emission and fractals based on information dimension during structural failure of coal subjected to uniaxial compression. Measurement 236, 115088. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.measurement.2024.115088 (2024).","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"23550_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrmge.2025.02.009","author":"QC Ran","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ran, Q. C. et al. Mechanical behavior and acoustic emission characteristics of initially damaged coal under triaxial cyclic loading and unloading. J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jrmge.2025.02.009 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"23550_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1007\/s40789-025-00796-z","volume":"12","author":"ZY Song","year":"2025","unstructured":"Song, Z. Y. et al. Mechanical responses of sandstone exposed to triaxial differential cyclic loading with distinct unloading rates of confining stress: A lab scale investigation. Int. J. Coal Sci. Technol. 12, 58. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40789-025-00796-z (2025).","journal-title":"Int. J. Coal Sci. Technol."},{"key":"23550_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1007\/s40789-024-00733-6","volume":"11","author":"HY Rong","year":"2024","unstructured":"Rong, H. Y. et al. Mechanical behaviour and acoustic emission characteristics of the reinforced soft muddy rock under various moisture content levels. Int. J. Coal Sci. Technol. 11, 84. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40789-024-00733-6 (2024).","journal-title":"Int. J. Coal Sci. Technol."},{"key":"23550_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2024.109005","volume":"167","author":"MH Wei","year":"2025","unstructured":"Wei, M. H. et al. Acoustic and electromagnetic emission laws of rocks affected by size-dependent failure behavior under Brazilian tests. Eng. Fail. Anal. 167, 109005. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2024.109005 (2025).","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"23550_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1007\/s40789-024-00675-z","volume":"11","author":"YK Fu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Fu, Y. K. et al. Mechanical properties and energy evolutions of burst-prone coal samples with holes and fillings. Int. J. Coal Sci. Technol. 11, 40. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40789-024-00675-z (2024).","journal-title":"Int. J. Coal Sci. Technol."},{"key":"23550_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2024.109008","author":"B Liu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Liu, B., Liu, Y., Xiao, P. W. & Zhang, L. Effects of a single flaw on failure and acoustic emission characteristics around circular opening subjected to biaxial compression. Eng. Fail. Anal. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2024.109008 (2025).","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"23550_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2129639","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/2129639","volume":"2018","author":"JD Jiang","year":"2018","unstructured":"Jiang, J. D. & Xu, J. Investigation of energy mechanism and acoustic emission characteristics of mudstone with different moisture contents. Shock. Vib. 2018, 2129639. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2018\/2129639 (2018).","journal-title":"Shock. Vib."},{"key":"23550_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3873","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-016-1077-y","volume":"49","author":"QB Meng","year":"2016","unstructured":"Meng, Q. B., Zhang, M. W., Han, L. J., Pu, H. & Nie, T. Y. Effects of acoustic emission and energy evolution of rock specimens under the uniaxial cyclic loading and unloading compression. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 49, 3873\u20133886. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00603-016-1077-y (2016).","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"key":"23550_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-018-1626-7","volume":"52","author":"RB Hou","year":"2019","unstructured":"Hou, R. B., Zhang, K., Tao, J., Xue, X. R. & Chen, Y. L. A nonlinear creep damage coupled model for rock considering the effect of initial damage. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 52, 1275\u20131285. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00603-018-1626-7 (2019).","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"key":"23550_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1007\/s11043-021-09489-x","volume":"26","author":"P Huang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Huang, P., Zhang, J. X., Damascene, N. J., Wang, Z. J. & Li, M. Effect of loading rate on mechanical behavior of coal samples with initial damage accumulation. Mech. Time-Depend. Mater. 26, 309\u2013322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11043-021-09489-x (2022).","journal-title":"Mech. Time-Depend. Mater."},{"key":"23550_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2022.108797","volume":"274","author":"WX Yu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Yu, W. X., Jin, L., Du, X. L. & Deng, X. F. Effect of initial damage state on static and dynamic fracture of concrete with different sizes: An experimental study. Eng. Fract. Mech. 274, 108797. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2022.108797 (2022).","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"23550_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7937459","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/7937459","volume":"2021","author":"AH Lu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lu, A. H., Xu, J. H., Xia, Y. & Sun, L. Study on dynamic behavior and energy dissipation of rock considering initial damage effect. Shock. Vib. 2021, 7937459. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2021\/7937459 (2021).","journal-title":"Shock. Vib."},{"key":"23550_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s40948-023-00555-x","volume":"9","author":"QC Ran","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ran, Q. C. et al. Experimental investigation on mechanical characteristics of red sandstone under graded cyclic loading and its inspirations for stability of overlying strata. Geomech. Geophys. Geo-Energy Geo-Resour. 9, 11. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40948-023-00555-x (2023).","journal-title":"Geomech. Geophys. Geo-Energy Geo-Resour."},{"key":"23550_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-023-10825-2","volume":"82","author":"BC Zhang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhang, B. C., Liang, Y. P., Zou, Q. L., Ding, L. Q. & Ran, Q. C. Experimental investigation into the damage evolution of sandstone under decreasing-amplitude stress rates and its implications for coalbed methane exploitation. Environ. Earth Sci. 82, 208. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12665-023-10825-2 (2023).","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"23550_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-023-03307-z","volume":"82","author":"BC Zhang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhang, B. C. et al. Effect of stress amplitude on mechanical and acoustic emission of sandstone under constant\u2013cyclic loading. Bull. Eng. Geol. Env. 82, 284. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10064-023-03307-z (2023).","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Env."},{"key":"23550_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1631\/jzus.A2300159","volume":"25","author":"ZL Wang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wang, Z. L. et al. Evolution mechanism and quantitative characterization of initial micro-cracks in marble under triaxial compression. J. Zhejiang Univ. \u2013Sci. A 25, 586\u2013595. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1631\/jzus.A2300159 (2024).","journal-title":"J. Zhejiang Univ. \u2013Sci. A"},{"key":"23550_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1007\/s40789-025-00802-4","volume":"12","author":"QC Ran","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ran, Q. C. et al. Failure mechanisms of sandstone subjected to cyclic loading considering stress amplitude effects. Int. J. Coal Sci. Technol. 12, 68. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40789-025-00802-4 (2025).","journal-title":"Int. J. Coal Sci. Technol."},{"key":"23550_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2084","DOI":"10.13722\/j.cnki.jrme.2019.0153","volume":"38","author":"Y Xu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Xu, Y., Li, C. J., Zheng, Q. Q., Ni, X. & Wang, Q. Q. Analysis of energy evolution and damage characteristics of mudstone under cyclic loading and unloading. Chin. J. Rock Mech. Eng. 38, 2084\u20132091. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13722\/j.cnki.jrme.2019.0153 (2019).","journal-title":"Chin. J. Rock Mech. Eng."},{"key":"23550_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4417","DOI":"10.13225\/j.cnki.jccs.2023.0256","volume":"48","author":"DW Yin","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yin, D. W. et al. Experimental study on mechanical properties of coal soaked in pressurized water considering initial damage. J. China Coal Soc. 48, 4417\u20134432. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13225\/j.cnki.jccs.2023.0256 (2023).","journal-title":"J. China Coal Soc."},{"key":"23550_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1592","DOI":"10.1177\/10567895221107707","volume":"31","author":"ZL Wang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wang, Z. L., Li, S. Y., Wang, J. G., Xiong, F. & Xie, L. X. Mechanical behavior, mesoscopic properties and energy evolution of deeply buried marble during triaxial loading. Int. J. Damage Mech 31, 1592\u20131612. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/10567895221107707 (2022).","journal-title":"Int. J. Damage Mech"},{"key":"23550_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2022.126443","volume":"266","author":"XH Du","year":"2023","unstructured":"Du, X. H. et al. Triaxial mechanical behaviour and energy conversion characteristics of deep coal bodies under confining pressure. Energy 266, 126443. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.energy.2022.126443 (2023).","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"23550_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chaos.2024.115685","volume":"189","author":"SG Li","year":"2024","unstructured":"Li, S. G. et al. Relationship between micro-pores fractal characteristics about NMR T2 spectra and macro cracks fractal laws based on box dimension method of coal under impact load from energy dissipation theory. Chaos, Solitons Fractals 189, 115685. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chaos.2024.115685 (2024).","journal-title":"Chaos, Solitons Fractals"},{"key":"23550_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gete.2023.100504","volume":"36","author":"SY Li","year":"2023","unstructured":"Li, S. Y. et al. Failure characteristics and brittleness index establishment based on marble energy evolution mechanism. Geomech Energy Envir 36, 100504. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.gete.2023.100504 (2023).","journal-title":"Geomech Energy Envir"},{"key":"23550_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11099","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.energyfuels.5c01419","volume":"39","author":"D He","year":"2025","unstructured":"He, D. et al. Effects of dynamic impact on microstructure evolution and permeability enhancement of coal. Energy Fuels 39, 11099\u201311109. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acs.energyfuels.5c01419 (2025).","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"23550_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2025.121459","volume":"466","author":"TF Ma","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ma, T. F. et al. Regulation mechanism of surfactant-SiO2 nanoparticle compound on the mechanical property and microstructure of coal: Effect of the type of surfactant. Powder Technol. 466, 121459. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.powtec.2025.121459 (2025).","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"23550_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2775","DOI":"10.1007\/s11053-025-10541-7","volume":"34","author":"SG Li","year":"2025","unstructured":"Li, S. G. et al. Deformation and seepage characteristics of gassy coal subjected to cyclic loading-unloading of pore pressure. Nat. Resour. Res. 34, 2775\u20132796. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11053-025-10541-7 (2025).","journal-title":"Nat. Resour. Res."},{"key":"23550_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2025.136408","volume":"404","author":"CZ Wang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Wang, C. Z. et al. Dominant governing mechanisms of deformation-seepage and dynamic evolution model of permeability in gas-containing coal under coupled stress-pore pressure. Fuel 404, 136408. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.fuel.2025.136408 (2025).","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"23550_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2025.106056","volume":"188","author":"QL Zou","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zou, Q. L., Ma, T. F., Liang, J. Y., Xu, B. C. & Ran, Q. C. Mesomechanical weakening mechanism of coal modified by nanofluids with disparately sized SiO2 nanoparticles. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 188, 106056. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2025.106056 (2025).","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"23550_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2025.111592","volume":"328","author":"QC Ran","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ran, Q. C., Zhao, W. T., Liang, Y. P., Ye, C. F. & Ning, Y. H. Deciphering confining pressure effects on coal failure mechanisms using acoustic emission approaches. Eng. Fract. Mech. 328, 111592. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2025.111592 (2025).","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"23550_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.13545\/j.cnki.jmse.2022.0295","volume":"40","author":"PF Shan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Shan, P. F. et al. Study on acoustic emission rate response of coal samples considering initial damage difference. J. Min. Safe. Eng. 40, 798\u2013808. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13545\/j.cnki.jmse.2022.0295 (2023).","journal-title":"J. Min. Safe. Eng."},{"key":"23550_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2024.110477","volume":"310","author":"XK Chang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Chang, X. K., Wu, S. C., Zhang, Z. R. & Dai, F. Investigating the simulation test and acoustic emission characteristics of structural-control type rockbursts in deep underground environments. Eng. Fract. Mech. 310, 110477. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2024.110477 (2024).","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"23550_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2024.108474","volume":"163","author":"HZ Yang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yang, H. Z. et al. Predicting the failure of rock using critical slowing down theory on acoustic emission characteristics. Eng. Fail. Anal. 163, 108474. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2024.108474 (2024).","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"23550_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrmge.2024.12.014","author":"J Lu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Lu, J., Jiang, W., Xie, H. P., Gao, H. & Zhang, D. M. Dynamic disaster mechanism and acoustic emission evolution of deep coal-rock under true triaxial disturbance stress. J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jrmge.2024.12.014 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng."},{"key":"23550_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00603-025-04962-2","author":"CF Ye","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ye, C. F. et al. Progressive failure mechanism and shear strength model of granite under cyclic direct shear. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00603-025-04962-2 (2025).","journal-title":"Rock Mech. Rock Eng."},{"key":"23550_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2728","DOI":"10.13225\/j.cnki.jccs.2025.0578","volume":"50","author":"QC Ran","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ran, Q. C. et al. Statistical fractal pattern of acoustic emission and failure precursor characterization in damaged coal subjected to cyclic loading. J. China Coal Soc.\u00a050, 2728-2736, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13225\/j.cnki.jccs.2025.0578  (2025).","journal-title":"J. China Coal Soc."},{"key":"23550_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2024.108997","volume":"167","author":"ZL Zhou","year":"2025","unstructured":"Zhou, Z. L., Zhao, T. H., Ullah, B. & Fan, J. L. Investigating crack evolution, and failure precursor warning in sandstones with different water contents from the perspective of tensile-shear crack separation. Eng. Fail. Anal. 167, 108997. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2024.108997 (2025).","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"23550_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2024.105773","volume":"178","author":"X Yu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yu, X. et al. Uncovering the progressive failure process of primary coal-rock mass specimens: Insights from energy evolution, acoustic emission crack patterns, and visual characterization. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 178, 105773. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2024.105773 (2024).","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"23550_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2024.114950","volume":"170","author":"QC He","year":"2025","unstructured":"He, Q. C. et al. Compressive failure patterns and acoustic emission characteristics of reservoir rocks subjected to chemical corrosion for underground energy storage. J. Energy Storage 170, 114950. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.est.2024.114950 (2025).","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"23550_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0272252","volume":"37","author":"RB Gao","year":"2025","unstructured":"Gao, R. B. et al. Influence of coal-to-concrete height ratio on progressive damage characteristics of composite structures: Acoustic emission analysis. Phys. Fluids 37, 057127. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/5.0272252 (2025).","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"23550_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2024.110291","volume":"307","author":"QC Ran","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ran, Q. C. et al. Hardening-damage evolutionary mechanism of sandstone under multi-level cyclic loading. Eng. Fract. Mech. 307, 110291. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.engfracmech.2024.110291 (2024).","journal-title":"Eng. Fract. Mech."},{"key":"23550_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2023.105364","volume":"165","author":"YC Xie","year":"2023","unstructured":"Xie, Y. C., Hou, M. Z. & Li, C. B. Anisotropic characteristics of acoustic emission and the corresponding multifractal spectrum during progressive failure of shale under cyclic loading. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 165, 105364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijrmms.2023.105364 (2023).","journal-title":"Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci."},{"key":"23550_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.12363\/issn.1001-1986.23.09.0548","volume":"52","author":"K Zhang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhang, K. et al. Experimental study on acoustic emission evolution characteristics and response mechanism of damaged rocks. Coal Geol. Explor. 52, 96\u2013106. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12363\/issn.1001-1986.23.09.0548 (2024).","journal-title":"Coal Geol. Explor."},{"key":"23550_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2025.110023","volume":"182","author":"QC Ran","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ran, Q. C. et al. Failure analysis of overlying strata during inclined coal seam mining: Insights from acoustic emission monitoring. Eng. Fail. Anal. 182, 110023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2025.110023 (2025).","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."}],"container-title":["Scientific Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23550-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23550-6","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23550-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T22:26:26Z","timestamp":1763072786000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-025-23550-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["23550"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-23550-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-2322"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-2322","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"27 August 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"7 October 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"13 November 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"39798"}}